Alternative fuel technologies

crude and crude crude products w atomic number 18 been mainstay of atomic number 18nas scotch and proficient advancement since past 150 age. The mechanism driving the intact fargonation system from automobiles, airplanes, rail instructions, ships to space rockets is found on utilization of push of fossil anoint crude. Petroleum products are as well as extensively customd in a digit of infrastructure industries that stool the core of industrial processes and priming coat of existence of new-fashioned public. However, the crude crude re bloodlines of introduction are real express mail and they advisenot endlessly get military personnel organisms demands.Various estimates pee-pee put the rack up extractible vegetable crude color stock to exist for some other 50-75 eld if world continues to see them at lay out rate. After that the court of extraction of remaining oil products would flip representation much much than the benefits obtained them and world would require young resources of cypher to exist. These concerns have al claimy spawned intense query in motleynate technologies to meet the early zip films in the face of an impending oil colour crisis.The shortage of anoint would be to a neater extent manifest in culmination times as vegetable oil demands are growe world across-the-board, in particular in chinaware and India with rapidly expanding parsimony, dit system and consequently fate of crude fossil anoint. Even at give way part of goods and services rate thither are grave uncertainties on the practiced prospects of future supplies within attached 50 years time frame, and the salary increase exercise rates threatens to figure out(p) the approaching crisis nearer.United States is thus faced with a great responsibility to secure its future interests without sacrificing its present requirements and needs. This issue forms the topic of the abutting section. election enkindle te chnologies Past decade has seen great farce on technological investigatees in preference burns. Various new techniques and models have already been introduced in the food market to test their viability and capacity to success grandy convert darlingroleum as nous source of vital force.Most of these innovations are particular propositionally aimed at merchant vessels field owing to its liability as head word consumer of petroleum anele and as normal arrive of surgeing oil effects. Due to distinct requirements of different sectors in conveyance, the technologies vary. Passenger fomites, public transport fomites and freight transportation strain specific needs that are difficult to be met by a iodin selection evoke engineering science (Deutch J, Schlesinger J. R, winner D. G. 2006).Some of the study and most usual of these technologies, where majority of research and development has taken place, are (Aldrich, 1996) 1. crossbred vehicle As the name suggests, loanblend vehicles coalesce dual technologies for their operation. Technically they are hybridizing galvanising automobile vehicle with an galvanic move that leads the vehicle (Hoogma, Kemp, Schot and Truffer, 2002, 41 ). 2. Bio-diesels Bio-diesel Bio-diesel, as the term suggests, is a type of renewable provide obtained by awkward products and utilize as give notice in heavy- employment vehicles.The major sources concisely under research for bio-diesel are soybean, rapeseed, corn, cottonseed, peanut, sunflower, and whoremasterola (Aldrich, 1996, 85). 3. Ethanol Ethanol has emerged as a successful alternate(a) to fossil furnishs in Brazil where much than than 4 million vehicles on neutral spirits based force out and it is finding increasing application in the world as well 4. enthalpy There are great interests in victimisation henry as sack in transport constancy due to the great tractableness of options and performance it offers. hydrogen toilette eith er be purposed as raise in place of gun in immanent burning locomotive or it finish be habitd as postcode crew swinging in fuel cells, the latter being the major research flying field in automobile sector (Aldrich, 1996, 87). solar capacity Solar top executive has turned as a dependable source of goose egg in areas other than transport. all the initial speak tos are high in maintaining a solar energy force play plant, its been shown that with surfaceively sophisticated engineering and wider application the personify of installation as well as extension of galvanisingity crowd out get comparable to normal forcefulness plants. ken outrage SystemApart from introducing alternative fuel and technologies to deputise and minimize fossil fuel pulmonary tuberculosis, another area where fuel consumption dope be advantageously tighten upd is creating a more robust and functional public transport and mass transit system. It is cost effective and time consuming t o redesign the alert public transport system, especially in major cities, to cut down fuel consumption by reducing number of vehicles on the road. Socio-cultural impact When fossil fuels were disc everyplaceed or so 150 years back, the existing technologies of steam engines were unable(p) to utilize them.However, soon in all new technologies were highly-developed in the face of these new energy sources and they were used to capitalize on the energy capacity and efficiency of fossil fuels. Soon petroleum fuels revolutionized the way the world moved and worked. The past 100 years of consumption has comprehensively depleted non-renewable petroleum deposits and estimates give another 50 more years before the remaining available sources would get intimately exhausted. This fact is indeed a construct of concern, but only if notioned from existing technological frame.Declining petroleum resources offer the signal that its time to make transition towards different energy sources. Co untries that would fail to read this signal or close their eyes to it are certainly heading for a major crisis. But fortunately the world has the capacity to read these signals and develop reliable intermediate technologies and systems much(prenominal) as hybrid galvanizing vehicle, neutral spirits and public transit systems that would considerably reduce fossil fuel consumption without adding to infrastructure cost at that placeby extending the liveness period of petroleum reservoirs.Mean musical composition research can take place on new age technologies such(prenominal) as fuel cell and solar photovoltaic cells to complete replace fossil fuels as a source of energy. It is possible that if political sympathies and industry institute providential policy measures, thither would be a legions of alternative technologies in transportation sector by the time petroleum oil would get exhausted. _ Reference bobsleigh Aldrich.. ABCs of AFVs a guide to alternative fuel vehicles.Calif ornia cipher Commission, Sacramento-CA. April 1996. beginning(a) Feb 2007 http//www. p2pays. org/ref/26/25156. pdf Hoogma Recmo, Rene Kemp, John Schot, Bernhard Truffer. Experimenting for Sustainable Transport The Approach of strategic Niche Management. Spon Press New York 2002. 3 Deutch J, Schlesinger J. R, Victor D. G. 2006. Consequence of U. S crude oil Dependency Report of an Independent Task Force. 30th Jan. 2007 http//www. cfr. org/content/publications/attachments/ readinessTFR. pdf substitute(a) fuel technologiesSince its discoin truth 150 years ago, petroleum oil has break down line of life of the world, the functional equivalent of blood in the human body. The mechanism driving the entire transportation system from automobiles, airplanes, railways, ships to space rockets is based on utilization of energy of petroleum oil. Petroleum products are also extensively used in a number of infrastructure industries that form the core of industrial processes and basis of existe nce of modern world. However, the petroleum resources of world are very limited and they cannot endlessly meet human demands.Various estimates have put the integral extractable oil stock to exist for another 50-75 years if world continues to consume them at present rate. After that the cost of extraction of remaining petroleum products would become much more than the benefits obtained them and world would require new resources of energy to exist. These concerns have already spawned intense research in alternative technologies to meet the future energy needs in the face of an impending petroleum crisis. United States of America is worlds leading consumer of petroleum products accounting for approximately 25 % of total consumption of petroleum oil world over.In 2003, worlds consumption of petroleum oil stood at around 80 million bbls per mean solar day, out of which USs share was close to 20 million barrel (Hirsch, Bezdek, Wending, 2005). To meet these grand petroleum demands US d epends crucially on oil imports that is well above 50 % right away and continuing to spring up upward. This evoke dependence on imported oil poses various strategic and certification challenges for US interests in the long make for. The sharp oil price increases of 1973 and 1979-81 take gondola care as testimony to the dangers of import dependence.Further as the oil sources would continue to deplete, the prices of oil would steadily and inexorably rise until the level when world is faced with an not bad(p) fuel crisis. Based on these observations its vital that U. S explores alternative technologies and fuels to sustain its development and growth structure. Need of alternative fuels The continuous rise in U. S oil consumption has forced it to rely increasingly on imported oil to meet its expanding requirements. As of today with its 20 million barrel per day consumption U.S is the largest consumer and importer of oil, surpassing the combined consumption of Japan, Germany, Chi na, Russia and South Korea (Reardon, 2004).. The share of oil in total energy heightend in regular army is just 17. 2 percent while in consumption it rises to 40 percent that explains the need for huge oil import. Imports constitute 11 million barrels per day that is more than the aggregate oil import of Japan, Germany, and South Korea (Reardon, 2004). The bulk of the oil consumption takes place in the transportation sector, which accounts for the 69 percent of the total oil consumption in US (Basic Petroleum Statistics, 2007).Consumption stands highest for force back gas. Average day-by-day consumption of motor gasoline in U. S, accord to Petroleum data (EIA, 2005) is 8933 super acid barrels per day. distillment fuel oil is the insurgent most consumed petroleum product with daily consumption at 2817 gee barrels. These figures give a realistic view of inevitable oil import dependency U. S for present and future if it carries on the present rate of consumption. Indeed the c hances to curb the grand oil imports are slim considering the sink of 210 millions vehicle that depend solely upon motor gasoline for their functioning (Hirsch R.L, Bezdek R, Wending R, February 2005, 4). As on 1st January 2006, the total proved oil militia with U. S was just 21. 6 trillion barrels, which implies that in future U. S would be forced to rely almost completely on oil imports for its entire transportation requirements. As the approximate sources shall run dry, U. S dependency would shift to further sources from where oil must be transported over vulnerable supply lines, leading to rise in worldwide oil price. The greater venture is certainly compromising with U. S content interests.The oil supply lines would eternally be at risk against disloyal elements requiring another set of huge investment in ensuring safe transportation of oil to U. S onshore facilities. It will also place U. S interests in the hands of oil cartels such as OPEC that may freely manipulat e oil supplies check to their own interests. Part II pick fuel technologies The impending oil crisis has finally stirred policy makers in US. A number of approaches are suggested that include a. imposing taxes on oil consumption b. apply tradable gasoline permits and c. exploration of new sources of oil ( Deutch J, Schlesinger J.R, Victor D. G. 2006 ). However, the pressing need of situation demands measures that would sustain the present structure while safeguarding the future against depleting sources and rising petroleum prices. As the worlds oil reserves are finite, even measures such stagnating oil consumption and using oil more efficiently are just jockful in delaying the inevitable without fling any permanent solution to the issue. Oil reserves are going down steadily and within a pair off of decades prices will soar up inexorably disrupting the economy, industry and society in turn.The only practicable solution to this problem is technological innovations in energy fi eld that can reduce dependence on petroleum oil by providing alternative and sustainable sources of energy. It shall serve two immensely reclaimable purposes that are a. minimizing U. S dependence on foreign oil and b. preventing the milieu from damages associated with use of petroleum oils and products. The certainty of oil exhaustion has elysian efforts from both government and corporate sector to research and develop the new fuel technologies as a providential measure for survival, growth and progress in forth access days of oil crisis.Past decade has seen great thrust on technological researches in alternative fuels. Various new techniques and models have already been introduced in the market to test their viability and capacity to successfully replace petroleum as chief source of energy. Most of these innovations are specifically aimed at transportation sector owing to its liability as chief consumer of petroleum oil and as principle cause of soaring oil imports. Due to dist inct requirements of different sectors in transportation, the technologies varyAlternative fuel technologiesSince its discovery 150 years ago, petroleum oil has become lifeline of the world. The entire structure of the modern mechanized world, consisting from transportation system, automobiles, airplanes, railways, ships to space rockets today operates primarily on the energy derived from the fossil fuels/petroleum oils. Apart from being mainstay of the transportation sector, petroleum products have also found wide application in a large range of core infrastructure industries that are essential for survival of industrial processes and basis of existence of modern world.This dependence on exclusive use of petroleum resources of world has become cause of serious concern among policy planners. Petroleum resources are very limited and they have cannot be continuously exploited to meet human demand. According to varoius studies and estimates, the total oil stock of world t is anticipat e to last for another 50-75 years if world continues to consume them at present rate. After that the cost of extraction of remaining petroleum products would rise greatly. It would become so costly that benefits obtained from oil would be lower than expenditure incurred on them.Thus world may need another resources of energy to exist. These fears and concerns have already generated intense research in alternative technologies to meet the future energy needs in the face of an overhanging petroleum crisis. The large part of the oil consumption takes place in the transportation sector, which accounts for the 69 percent of the total oil consumption in the US alone (Basic Petroleum Statistics, 2007). boilersuit in that location are five major sectors accounting for petroleum oil consumption. These sectors, along with their consumption share in year 2005 are (Petroleum-EIA, 2006)1. interior(prenominal)/Household Consumption in 2005 was 869 cat valium barrels of petroleum per day 2. Com mercial 386 thousand barrels of petroleum per day 3. Industrial 5061 thousand barrels of petroleum per day 4. Electric Power production 545 thousand barrels of petroleum per day 5. Transportation 13, 825 thousand barrels of petroleum per day. The consumption pattern in the transportation sector shows that consumption is highest for motor gasoline. Average daily consumption of motor gasoline in U. S, according to Petroleum data (EIA, 2005) is 8933 thousand barrels per day.Distillate fuel oil is the second most consumed petroleum product with daily consumption at 2817 thousand barrels. These figures show that U. S would be dependent on oil imports for present and future if it carries on the present rate of consumption. U. S has a fleet of 210 millions vehicle that depend entirely upon motor gasoline for their functioning that makes it very difficult to reduce oil consumption. (Hirsch R. L, Bezdek R, Wending R, February 2005, 4). As on 1st January 2006, the total proven oil reserves wi th U. S was just 21. 6 billion barrels, which means that in future U.S would be forced to rely almost completely on oil imports for its entire transportation requirements. As the closer sources shall run dry, U. S would be dependent on distant sources from where oil must be transported. The supply lines may become vulnerable to safety valve and terrorist attacks and it would lead to rise in global oil price. The greater risk is certainly compromising with U. S national interests. The oil supply lines would always be at risk against subversive elements requiring another set of huge investment in ensuring safe transportation of oil to U. S onshore facilities.It will also place U. S interests in the hands of oil cartels such as OPEC that may freely manipulate oil supplies according to their own interests. The shortage of oil would increase greatly in orgasm times as oil demands are growing worldwide. Meanwhile China and India are also expanding their economy, transportation system an d indeed they would need more oil in future. Even at present rate there are serious doubts on the secure prospects of future supplies within next 50 years time frame, and the rising consumption rates threatens to playact the approaching crisis nearer.United States has thus a great responsibility to secure its future interests without sacrificing its present requirements and needs. This issue forms the topic of the next section. Alternative fuel technologies The sociable oil crisis has finally moved policy makers in US. A number of approaches are suggested that include a. imposing taxes on oil consumption b. using tradable gasoline permits and c. exploration of new sources of oil ( Deutch J, Schlesinger J. R, Victor D. G. 2006 ).However, the urgent need of situation demands methods that would sustain the present structure while safeguarding the future against depleting sources and rising petroleum prices. As the worlds oil reserves are limited, even measures such stagnating oil co nsumption and using oil more efficiently are just helpful in delaying the inevitable without offering any permanent solution to the issue. Oil reserves are going down steadily and within a couple of decades prices will soar up inexorably disrupting the economy, industry and society in turn.The only practical solution to this problem is technological innovations in energy field that can reduce dependence on petroleum oil by providing alternative and sustainable sources of energy. It shall serve two immensely useful purposes that are a. minimizing U. S dependence on foreign oil and b. preventing the environment from damages associated with use of petroleum oils and products. The certainty of oil exhaustion has inspired efforts from both government and corporate sector to research and develop the new fuel technologies as a providential measure for survival, growth and progress in forthcoming days of oil crisis.Past decade has seen great move on technological researches in alternative f uels. Various new techniques and models have already been introduced in the market to test their viability and capacity to successfully replace petroleum as chief source of energy. Most of these innovations are specifically aimed at transportation sector because it is the chief consumer of petroleum oil and as principle cause of increasing oil imports. Due to distinct requirements of different sectors in transportation, there are various technologies.Passenger vehicles, public transport vehicles and freight transportation carry specific needs that are difficult to be met by a single alternative fuel technology. Some of the major and most general of these technologies, where majority of research and development has taken place, are (Aldrich, 1996) 1. loanblend fomite 2. Bio-diesels 3. Ethanol 4. Hydrogen and 6. Solar energy Following section discusses the technology used in each of these new vehicle-systems and their benefits over conventional gasoline based internal combustion en gine.Hybrid Vehicles As the name suggests, hybrid vehicles combine dual technologies for their operation. Technically they are hybrid voltaic vehicle with an electric motor that drives the vehicle (Hoogma, Kemp, Schot and Truffer, 2002, 41 ). In the fictitious character of a characteristic electric vehicle, total heat fuel cell or chemical batteries such as advanced sealed lead battery, nickel cadmium and lithium ion are used for auxiliary magnate (Aldrich, 1996). However in the hybrid electric vehicles, the electric drive technology is combined with a gasoline-based power generator for running the electric motor and charging the batteries.Hybrid vehicles are either full hybrid or mid hybrid. A full hybrid vehicle can move forward from standstill purely on electric power while a mid hybrid requires gasoline power for initial movement, although both technologies concentrate on maximum utilization of electric motor power while reducing the use of gasoline as far as possible (Hyb rid Terms, 2007). The electric motor and internal combustion engine (ICE) are connected either in parallel or in series in a hybrid vehicle.In parallel hybrid cars, power to engine is supplied by both the electric motor and internal combustion engine while in the series hybrid car the gasoline engine powers the electric motor and batteries to generate electricity, without directly providing power for the vehicle (Hybrid Electric Vehicles, 2007). There is another category of hybrid vehicles, called as plug-in hybrid that can operate as a full electric vehicle. They require some additional batteries and use electricity net to level off the batteries thereby minimizing gasoline use to its lowest possible levels (Hybrid Terms, 2007).All hybrid electric vehicle use computer that constantly monitors speed, power required and buck conditions of batteries (Hybrid Electric Vehicles, 2007). Hybrid vehicles offer numerous benefits over the conventional gasoline based ICE, some of which are ( Hybrid Electric Vehicles, 2007 Sanna, 2007, 12 Aldrich, 1996, 88 ) 1. Hybrid vehicles are extremely fuel efficient, with most of the driving thrust coming from electric power. 2. Unlike electric cars, they offer unlimited range of change of location and transportation 3.Hybrid technology is combination of the proven technology of ICE with electric motors, thus giving it reliability in the market. 4. Hybrid technology can be used in various sectors of transportation, from personal vehicles to heavy avocation vehicles. In fact, both the major US car manufacturers, GM and crossroad have come out with a range of hybrid vehicles, that are successful in market. 5. Plug in -Hybrid technology is even more fuel conserving and environmentally benign, cutting down CO2 emission by more than 30 % while using minimum possible use of gasoline.Hybrid vehicles offer the most reliable alternate technology which US can capitalize upon without risking any major upheaval in its current fuel-technolog y structure. These vehicles see to drastically reduce fuel oil consumption, reducing the needs of oil imports, meanwhile purchasing time for completely oil free technology. Bio-diesel Bio-diesel, as the term suggests, is a type of renewable fuel obtained by agricultural products and used as fuel in heavy-duty vehicles. The major sources currently under research for bio-diesel are soybean, rapeseed, corn, cottonseed, peanut, sunflower, and canola (Aldrich, 1996, 85).The process of making bio-diesel involves use of an inebriant such as methanol which is treated with oil of selected agricultural produce to form glycerin followed by separation of fatty esters, recycling of senseless alcohol and purification of esters to produce a fuel that bears remarkable secretiveness to diesel, however with high octane number (Aldrich, 1996, 85). Currently bio-diesel is used when commix with petroleum diesel, especially in European markets, with commendable results. Bio-diesel offers a host of benefits over conventional petroleum diesel, some of which are (Faupel and Kurki, 2002, 1).1. Reduction in vehicle emission leading to environment safe emission standards 2. As bio-diesel is an gauzy lubricant it helps to prolong engine life 3. As the fuel is non-toxic and considerably biodegradable it presents high safety standards in storage and transportation. 4. It will give boost to agricultural productions 5. It poses significantly lower health risks than petroleum diesel, successfully meeting health requirement standards established by Clean advertize Act Amendment of 1990. 6.The technology of bio-diesel doesnt require any major altercation in present engine technology and infrastructure models, making it a popular choice in alternative fuel category. 7. The fact that bio-diesel can be completely synthesized domestically gives US a great luck to curtail its dependence on fossil fuel, curb imports, optimize its economy and make a transition towards a secure and sustainable future. Bio-diesel has gained wide acceptance as a viable alternative for fossil-diesel and it is increasingly used in mass transit system, freight transportation and heavy duty vehiclesEthanol Ethanol as a very long history as an alternative fuel, and it was tried in even 1880 as a fuel option for Ford cars (Aldrich, 1996, 51). Ethanol is derived from agricultural produces by process of fermenting and distillation to form a high-octane liquid fuel. Normally ethanol is not used alone as a fuel, instead it is blended with gasoline in ratio of 85 percent ethanol and 15 percent gasoline to form a fuel E-85, which is approved as an alternative fuel in US (Ethanol, 2007). The vehicles run on this fuel are called as flexi fuel vehicles.Ethanol has emerged as a successful alternative to fossil fuels in Brazil where more than 4 million vehicles on ethanol based fuel and it is finding increasing application in US as well. The benefits of using ethanol are multifold and they include (Ethanol , 2007) 1. save in use Although E85 engine is somewhat different than ICE, it is possible to alter the existing ICE to accommodate E85 as the fuel 2. Reduced petroleum consumption Increased use of E85 promises considerable reduction in use of fossil oil. 3.Renewable and sustainable fuel E-85 is organically synthesized. It is renewable as ethanol can be made from waste bio products, optimizing the energy sector. 4. Environment compatibility Vehicles using E-85 produce around 50 percent less smog in emission 5. Flexible fuel options Vehicles using E-85 as fuel can also operate on gasoline, which is useful in case of non handiness of E-85 Hydrogen There are great interests in using atomic number 1 as fuel in transport industry due to the great flexibility of options and performance it offers.Hydrogen can either be used as fuel in place of gasoline in internal combustion engine or it can be used as energy carrier in fuel cells, the latter being the major research area in automobile s ector (Aldrich, 1996, 87). Generally, hydrogen is obtained by decomposing hydrocarbon fuels, electrolysis of peeing and photolysis. It is stored directly in form of gas, liquid or as chemically with metal hydrides (Hydrogen Economy, 2002, 2). Due to its low energy volume, direct use of hydrogen as a fuel would require considerably large volumes to fuel the vehicle.On the other hand, hydrogen is extremely efficient in fuel cells. In a fuel cell, hydrogen combines with oxygen to produce electricity, Use of hydrogen offers following advantages (Hydrogen Economy, 2002 Aldrich, 1996,87) 1. It is the most abundant element in universe and hence practically inexhaustible as a source of energy. 2. When burned it produces pissing vapour as only by product. 3. Hydrogen can be used a fuel directly in ICE, requiring no passing in engine design. 4.Hydrogen fuel cells involve no pollution, and provide higher efficiency of the order of 45 percent in combustion. 5. In case of any accidents, hydro gen powered vehicle are likely to cause less damage due to light chemical nature of hydrogen. Solar Power Use of solar power as energy in transportation sector has been subject of intense technological research. While the solar energy has found wide application as domestic energy supply, there are difficulties in their application in transport sector.Photovoltaic cells, that breastfeed sunrays to provide electricity, are inefficient under the current technology strains and unable to generate even a fraction of required power to drive a normal passenger vehicle. However, solar power has turned as a dependable source of energy in areas other than transport. All the initial costs are high in maintaining a solar energy power plant, its been shown that with increasingly sophisticated technology and wider application the cost of installation as well as generation of electricity can get comparable to normal power plants (Borowitz, 1999,112).Conclusion When fossil fuels were discovered aro und 150 years back, the existing technologies of steam engines were unable to utilize them. However, soon completely new technologies were developed as new energy sources were discovered. They started to use the energy content and efficiency of fossil fuels. Soon petroleum fuels revolutionized the way the world moved and worked. The past 100 years of consumption has comprehensively depleted non-renewable petroleum deposits and estimates give another 50 more years before the remaining available sources would get almost exhausted.US has the capacity to read these signals and develop reliable intermediate technologies and systems such as hybrid electric vehicle, ethanol and public transit systems that would considerably reduce fossil fuel consumption without adding to infrastructure cost thereby extending the life period of petroleum reservoirs. Meanwhile research is continuing on new age technologies such as fuel cell and solar photovoltaic cells to complete replace fossil fuels as a source of energy.It is possible that if government and industry institute providential policy measures, there would be a host of alternative technologies in transportation sector by the time petroleum oil would get exhausted. Economic advantage of using alternative fuels Alternative fuel technologies carry great stinting benefit for US. Presently USA is heavily dependent on imported petroleum fuel that accounts for massive expenditure in the federal budget. Increased use of alternative fuel technology would reduce this dependency, saving billions of dollars annually.Further, the domestic production, processing and maintenance of alternative fuel resources and vehicles would create more number of jobs, thus strengthening the economic conditions. Alternative vehicles would also create far less air pollution, which would help the quality of life with reduced lungs diseases, cancers, asthma and various other problems. It would also bring down the need as well as the cost of environmenta l cleanup, adding to economic benefits further (AFV-2000) Reference Alternative Fuel Vehicles, 2000, modality Change Technologies, 21st Feb, 2007, http//yosemite.epa. gov/oar/globalwarming. nsf/UniqueKeyLookup/SHSU5BMSCX/$File/alternativefueledvehicles. pdf Basic Petroleum Statistics. Jan 2007. Energy nurture Administration. 31st Jan. 2007 http//www. eia. doe. gov/neic/quickfacts/quickoil. html Bob Aldrich.. ABCs of AFVs a guide to alternative fuel vehicles. California Energy Commission, Sacramento-CA. April 1996. 1st Feb 2007 http//www. p2pays. org/ref/26/25156. pdf Borowitz, Sidney. leave-taking Fossil Fuels Reviewing Americas Energy Policy. Plenum Trade New York 1999 Deutch J, Schlesinger J. R, Victor D. G. 2006. Consequence of U.S Oil Dependency Report of an Independent Task Force. 30th Jan. 2007 http//www. cfr. org/content/publications/attachments/EnergyTFR. pdf Ethanol. 2007. Alternative Fuel Data Center. US Department of Energy. 1st Feb, 2007, http//www. eere. energy. gov /afdc/altfuel/ethanol. html Faupel Karen and Al Kukri, 2002. Biodiesel A Brief Overivew. NCAT Agricultural Specialist. 1st Feb, 2007. http//www. msenergy. ms/biodiesel. pdf Hirsch R. L, Bezdek R, Wending R. February 2005. Peaking of World Oil Production Impact, Mitigation, & Risk Management. 30th Jan. 2007 http//www. pppl.gov/publications/pics/Oil_Peaking_1205. pdf Hoogma Recmo, Rene Kemp, John Schot, Bernhard Truffer. Experimenting for Sustainable Transport The Approach of Strategic Niche Management. Spon Press New York 2002. 36 Hybrid Electric Vehicles. Feb 2007. Hybrid & Electric Vehicle Implementing Agreement. International Energy Agency. 1st Feb, 2007. http//www. ieahev. org/hybrid. htmlAnchor3 Hybrid Terms. HybridCars. com. 1st Feb 2007 http//www. hybridcars. com/types-systems/hybrid-terms. html Petroleum. July, 2006. Annual Energy Review-2005. 31s Jan, 2007 http//www. eia. doe. gov/emeu/aer/petro.html Petroleum Overview, 1949-2005. Annual Energy Review. 31st Jan, 2007 http//www. eia. doe. gov/emeu/aer/petro. html Prospects For A Hydrogen Economy. Oct. 2002. Postnote. Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology. 1st Feb, 2007. http//www. parliament. uk/post/pn186. pdf Sanna Lucy. Driving the effect Plug-in Hybrid Vehicles. EPRI Journal. 1st Feb 2007. http//www. calcars. org/epri-driving-solution-1012885_PHEV. pdf U. S. Imports- Petroleum Navigator. Energy Information Administration. 31st Jan 2007 http//tonto. eia. doe. gov/dnav/pet/pet_move_impcus_d_NUS_Z00_mbbl_m. htm