Food Safety Modernization Act and Puerto Rico

nutriment encumbrance Modernization carry and Puerto anti-racketeering lawResearch Paper victuals recourse Modernization piece (FSMA) An Assessment of Puerto anti-racketeering laws sustenance effort Readiness and Prep ardnessAbstr practise advance IdeaThe successful development and implementation of compliance policies and activities in the intellectual nourishment industry could be directly associated with the access to culture and downstairsstanding of the law. Discussions and culture found in the literature almost the in completelyude of the pabulum caoutchouc Modernization Act (FSMA) implementation has been in the first place conducted within the coupled States. nevertheless, express mail teaching is available approximately the impact of this revolutionary law in one of the U.S. territories, the Commonwealth of Puerto anti-racketeering law. On this research study FDA Official Inspected governments in Puerto anti-racketeering law were questioned about their readiness and prep ardness for FSMA using an on-line come off tool. The purpose of this research is to obtain selective information that derriere allow to evaluated if the miss of access to FSMA information and language barriers possess a direct tack together that limits the readiness and prep bedness of the FSMA implementation in Puerto Rico.In take place embroil results and conclusion headings/sectionsChapter I IntroductionIntroductionFSMA implementation represents a ample challenge that urges nutrition manufacturers to revise their victuals synthetic rubber systems and make decisions about resource allocation to reduce diet safety risks in their operations. This novel law had been building with several years of high-profile victuals recalls, diet for thoughtborne complaint outbreak, and consumers advisories (3).Discussions and information found in the literature about the impact of the implementation of FSMA has been brinyly conducted within the join St ates. However, limited information is available about the impact of this untested law on the aliment industry in anformer(a)(prenominal)wise U.S. territories.On this research study the information collected allow to test the readiness and prep ardness on FSMA in one of the U.S. territories, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. The island of Puerto Rico is dissever of the Greater Antilles and since 1898 has been part of the United States (1). This unique status requires that pabulum manufacturers in Puerto Rico comply with all federal regulations that cover the sustenance industry (2).It is important to chthonianstand that the challenges faced by fare manufacturers in Puerto Rico are not unalike from their counterparts in the United States. FDA Commissioner Margaret A. Hamburg say that FSMA calls for the strengthening of existing collaboration among all food safety agencies whether they are federal official, state, local, territorial, tribal, or impertinent. Building and l everaging the capacity of these food safety partners is how we advise overhear a well-integrated, national food safety system that is as effective and efficient as it can be (12) (13).In hunting lodge to achieve these statements it is imperative to collect information, actually not available, about food manufactures readiness and preparedness in Puerto Rico for the implementation of the different requirements accomplished on FSMA. This task represents a big challenge specific topics about the requirements of the FSMA law are outside the scope of this research study. Taking this bound in regard, two research questions are intended to be cover by this study.Is the lack of access to FSMA information limiting readiness of food manufacturers in Puerto Rico?Is the lack of infrastanding due to language barriers among food manufacturers limiting FSMA preparedness?The participants were defined using the FDA Official Inventory Establishment (OIE) leaning of food manufacturers in Puert o Rico (Appendix 1). An online survey was utilise as the instrument to obtain information. The survey questionnaire was distributed among the participants by e-mail and descriptive statistics was used to summarize and analyze the data obtained from the survey. Findings, recommendations and future directions volition be discussed to peck more about the food manufacturing industry in Puerto Rico.FSMA Rule RequirementsThe aliment safeguard Modernization Act (FSMA) is the most significant amendment of United States food law since passage of the 1938 viands, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (3). It pass on impact all domestic and import food products that are not under the legal power of the U.S. Department of Agriculture nutriment Safety and Inspection Service (USDA-FSIS). FSMA was gestural into law on January 4, 2011 and since then food manufacturers waste been called upon to start preparing their companies to be in compliance with the new law requirements.FDA identified five mark ci strons where its leave was enhanced. The first element is focusing on pr howeverting food borne illness by requiring mandatory celebrateive visualises, Hazard abridgment Risk contraceptive sways (HARPC), for food facilities and mandatory kindle safety standards, and as well as giving the potential to prevent intentional adulteration. The difference from the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) entree is that HARPC is slightly broader requiring identification and overcomes of hazards generally, not just critical control points (3). The minute of arc is by providing the ability to increase FDA direction frequency establish on risk high-risk facilities will be identified. Third, ability to move to problems when emerge including authority to conduct mandatory recall for all products, authority to detain products that are in violation, and by suspending facilitys registration. Before, FDA was required to have credible evidence or information than an article of food presents a little terror of serious adverse health consequences or death to humans or animals with FSMA FDA have the authority to detain an article if the agency has reason to commit that the article of food is adulterated or misbranded (3). The fourth element identified is new requirements for imported products by requiring importers to verify their foreign suppliers have adequate preventive controls. The last element considered is the enhanced of partnerships between FDA by improving training of state, local, and tribal food safety ordaineds (25). In addition, FDA will enhance the partnerships with other food agencies and private entities (24).The FDA is responsible for more than 50 regulations, bearlines, and studies under FSMA, this included seven foundational rules required to fully implement it (See confuse 1) (25).Among the 7 different rules included in FSMA the well-known part one hundred ten that covers incumbent hefty Manufacturing Practices was removed an d replaced it. Now part 117 will covers Good Manufacturing Practice and Hazard Analysis and Risk Controls for Human food and for Growing, Harvesting, packing material and Holdings of Produce for Human Consumption.In addition, it is expected by law that all high-risk domestic firms subsequently the law enactment be inspected in a period of five years and no less than both three years thereafter (3).The FSMA legislations purpose is to renovate the existing turn up to food safety by enabling stakeholders to concentrate on preventive controls rather than simply reacting to food safety events (4). Legislative requirements of FSMA can be challenging, especially for subaltern food facilities affected by the regulations immediately or in the near future (4). The new recordkeeping requirements will be science- base and based on the know safety risk of a particular food, including the accounting and severity of outbreak, and factors related with the likelihood on foodborne illnesses (3) . Small and very down(p) plants do not have robust programs in place when examined with larger plants. Historically, small businesses have not had extensive experience with prevalent food safety management systems and standards much(prenominal) as ISO 22000 2005, SQF code (Safe Quality Food Institute), GFSI guidelines (Global Food Safety Initiative) or HACCP (4). weapons platforms that in most cases larger plants are more familiarized (4). In addition, FDA has recognized that small food facilities will likely face financial concerns in the implementation of the preventive control requirements of FSMA because they lack experience with HACCP-based models (4). Nevertheless, the new food safety requirements are the aforementioned(prenominal) regardless of coat, unless they are partially or fully exempted based on the operations conducted in the facility (5). Small plants and very small plants direct to comply within a period of two to three years, respectively, after the publica tion of the final rule (see table 2) (5).Historical Background and Food Regulatory Structure in Puerto RicoThe island of Puerto Rico is similar in size to Connecticut, encompassing 3,492 square miles. The nation is about 3.4 million and the main language is Spanish. The island has 6 urban centers designated as Standard Metropolitan field of honors (SMAs) by the U.S. count Bureau (6) (7).Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands are under the jurisdiction of the FDA San Juan District office located in the capital area of Puerto Rico. This office is the smallest of the FDAs 20 districts, was established back in 1911 and was officially named in 1971. This office reports to the regional Field Office, Southeast Region in Atlanta, GA (19). In 2013, FDA reported that they regulated 1,500 facilities, approximately half of them from the food industry (8). FDA in San Juan works closely with the local Health Department environmental Health Food Division, which is in charge of the inspection o f food manufacturing facilities. As other states in the U.S. (20), this agency establishes specific regulatory requirements and issues the mandatory hygienic license that covers food operations in the island. In 2016, the Association of Food and Drug Officials (AFDO), under contract to the FDA, shared data on the progress of FDA Food Code adoptions by States, Territories, and Indian Health Service. They reported that Puerto Rico adopted the Food Code version 2009 based in their population (21).Food Regulatory requirements in Puerto Rico are also promulgated by the Puerto Rico Health Department in Departamento de Salud de Puerto Rico Reglamento widely distributed de Salud Ambiental No. 6090 4 de febrero de 2000 (18). On this regulations, the CFR tittle 21 is mentioned as the elementary reference for compliance. However, in addition of the regulation established in the CFR patronage 21 there is specific requirements established in Puerto Rico for food products label language, annu al license certificationXXXX In addition, there are other agencies in the island that are or may be involve on food safety oversight. The State Department of Agriculture has regulations thru the program of Inspeccion de Mercado that covers produce, coffee berry and eggs (22).Also, the Departamento de Asuntos al Consumidor (DACO) protect consumers from being deceiving (23). They are involve on informing recalls of imported products marketed in the Island, inspect and removed expired products from shelves and have the authority to enforce civil penalties. Also, they are involving on the inspection of box of meat, fruits, vegetable and others food products by enforcing the Reglamento de Empaque (23).It is important to mention that the USDA-FSIS is responsible for ensuring that meat, poultry, and processed egg products produced in Puerto Rico are safe, whole whatever, and accurately labeled. Puerto Rico establishments are under the jurisdiction of the FSISs Atlanta, Georgia District (14). Data obtained from the USDA-FSIS in Puerto Rico showed that eighty seven establishments are inspected by FSIS thirty four of them under dual jurisdiction with FDA. This means that thirty nine percentageage of these establishments have to comply at some point based on their size with FSMA requirements (15) (appendix 2).Puerto Rico is highly dependent on importations ninety three percent of the food consumed in the island is imported. This is also passing important to take in consideration since one of the part of FSMA cover importations and foreign supplier verification. Importers will need to institute risk-based foreign supplier verification programs to assure that imported foods are compliance with the new requirements of the law (3).Although much information can be found related to FSMA, information about the impact of this new law in Puerto Rico is limited. An in-depth literature review showed nothing specifically related to Puerto Rico.Recent U.S. keep abreasts Outcom esSeveral surveys in the U.S. have al do been conducted, viewing specific topics on FSMA readiness and preparedness. One of the recent surveys in 2016 was conducted by Sparta Systems Inc. They conduct an online survey about FSMA readiness and compliance strategy. About 153 food and beverage professionals in the U.S. participated in this survey. The results showed that 61% of the participants felt confident that their organizations are prepared for FSMA. Approximately 20% of the respondents from medium-sized companies disagreed that their organizations were ready for FSMA according to additional conclusion from the survey (9a) (9b).Safety Chain Software and The Acheson Group (TAG) also conducted a survey in 2016. They used an online survey that received more than cd respondents, including food processors and manufacturers, produce growers/packagers/shippers, warehouse and distribution companies, animal food manufacturers, domestic suppliers, foodservice companies, retailers, impor t manufacturers, and import and domestic brokers (10b). More than two-thirds of respondents (68 percent) said they were somewhat ready for FSMA. Only 25 percent of respondents indicated they were ready for FSMA, while 6 percent said they werent ready at all. (10a)(10b).These findings indicate that education and preparation for FSMA die hard a challenge for some food manufacturers in the U.S. particularly for medium, small and very small processors.Why its importantThere are many another(prenominal) reasons of the importance of complying with the implementation of this new law. But for to make this task achievable it is important to make sure that the information is accessible and understandable by the regulated firms that fall under the law. The ultimately responsible following the different steps that compose this chain is the food manufacturer. The decisions made by them in order to be in compliance will be critical more than ever.Traditional inspecting styles will change becom ing more inspection -oriented and enforcement-minded (). Practices that were usually acceptable it maybe not enough to comply with these new inspections styles (). Firms that receive a Warning Letter following an FDA inspections, will be charged for the follow-up inspection (). In addition, if the firm is enforced by an injunction it will be required to close until corrective actions are completed and re-inspected by FDA, at the firm expense. It is important to note that even after being permitted to reopen, the firm remains under court supervision for the foreseeable future (). Moreover, FDA are resurrecting enforcement actions like criminal liability under the Park doctrine. The application of the doctrine establishes that corporate officials can be held criminally liable for violations of the FDC Act in areas of the company under the officials control, even if the official did not intend for the violations to occur ().If information on FSMA is not pronto accessible it can limiti ng readiness of food manufacturers in Puerto Rico that can severely delay their compliance. Also, language may be a barrier on food manufacturers that can limiting FSMA preparedness. Considering that side of meat is part of the educational curriculum of schools in Puerto Rico, contradictorily in 2000 the US Census showed that 45.1 percent of the total of the population of 481,410 people do not give tongue to English (26). This number could have been changed thru the years but Spanish stills is the main language used by the governmental offices in Puerto Rico and the population.Survey Instrument DescriptionThe survey instrument used was similar to the ones already used to obtain information from food manufacturers in the U.S.Taking into consideration that the main spoken language is Spanish, questions were provided in both, Spanish and English.The survey begins with a 5-minutes educational video from FDA about FSMA implementation to help participants be introduced into the topic. a fter completing the video, the participants will complete 16 questions in Likert and multiple extract formats. The questionnaire is divided into the following three parts Company and Respondent Profile, FSMA and Resources Preferences. (Appendix 3)sampling SelectionThe initial target population based on the OEI list submitted by FDA includes 786 firms (Appendix 2). Nevertheless, this number drastically changes because data include establishments reporting a last inspection dated in 1970. Furthermore, several firms appear duplicated on the list with exactly the same address information. Water and Ice Plants were also excluded for the purpose of the study. A further research, conducted me to a list NAME in the FDA webpage that seems to be more updated. This list included firms that were inspected for the period of 2008 2016. At the end, the try used were considering firms that have their last inspection date from 2008.The only accomplish information of the firm provided in the list was the address and phone number. Industry groups in Puerto Rico, MIDA and PRIDCO, and the Food Industry Forum (FIF) were ghosted and provide me with additional information by sharing their members list that include the e-mails information. Also, information found on the webpages PR Supply Chain On-Line and Hecho en Puerto Rico where extremely helpful to retrieve and validate food manufacturers contact information (16)(17).However some firms have been found that closed business at some point during 2008 2016 which was the period selected. At the end, the final revised number that their contact information can be validated roughly finished in 179 inspected firms.Data CollectionThe survey was classified as exempt by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) (appendix 2). It was open from February 14 to March 20, 2017 (proposed decision date). A total of 179 FDA food inspected firms were invited via e-mail to participate in the survey. From the 179 firms invited 23 e-mails bounced out a nd 1 opted out. Only 3 firms responded during the period of February 14 to February 27. A second invitation was sent on March 3, something that may affect the companionship on the first invitation is that field line and message were sent in English taking this premise in consideration second invitation subject line and message were sent in Spanish (on progress). In addition, some firms were contacted by phone to encourage them to participate in the survey.Data AnalysisThe analytical procedure used to evaluate the data collected was descriptive statistical methods. (Waiting for data)By been FSMA compliant food firms should be able to be give way prepared to respond to situations that emerge in the day to day. They should lurch from reactive and corrective minded to preventive minded by creating heavy food safety plans and HARCP programs.Future directions may include a second project that can be used as a follow-up in conjunction with regulatory agencies in Puerto Rico to evaluat e and compare the progress of the FSMA implementation among Food Manufacturers. Classification of the industry will be important to organize strategies by focusing on high-risk operations and offer a better guidance to food manufactures.Development of educational strategies such as guidelines, videos, workshops, and educational campaigns may be developed. Better allocating local and federal economical resources food manufacturers with limited resources can be better assisted.Regulatory agencies in Puerto Rico can unify efforts toward food safety compliance to create a strategy. Puerto Rico can used models from other states in U.S. that compiled information of food agencies in their area in a webpage creating a roadmap for food firms making the information easily accessible to food firms. Food regulatory agencies must enforce their partnership between agencies, recognise and share available resources between the agencies. Also, it is needed the establishment of periodic revisions an d psychoanalysis of recorded data to evaluate the progress of the firms. The use of new media tools such webpages and phone apps can expedite the delivering or retrieving of information from food manufacturers in the island. This will help to maintain open communication and keep information updated ensuring the availability of accurate data when it is needed.References(1) Ayala, C. J., Bernabe, R. (2007). Puerto Rico in the American ampere-second A history since 1898. Chapel Hill University of North Carolina Press.(2) Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21, Food and Drug Pt 1403, App. A, page 282 Revised as of April 1, 2011(3) Fortin, N. D. (2011). The United States FDA food safety modernization act The key new requirements. European Food and Feed Law Review EFFL, 6(5), 260-268. Retrieved from http//ezproxy.msu.edu.proxy1.cl.msu.edu/login?url=http//search.proquest.com.proxy1.cl.msu.edu/docview/903529133?accountid=12598(4) Grover, A. K., Chopra, S., Mosher, G. A. (2016). Food safe ty modernization act A fibre management approach to identify and prioritize factors affecting adoption of preventive controls among small food facilities. Food Control, 66, 241-249. doi10.1016/j.foodcont.2016.02.001(5) Food and Drug judicature, 2015 Food and Drug AdministrationFSMA proposed rule for preventive controls for human food(2015, February 21) Retrieved from http//www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceRegulation/FSMA/ucm334115.htm(6) United States Council for Puerto Rico Statehoodhttp//www.prstatehood.com/about-pr/index.asp(7) United States Census Bureau 2015 Puerto Rico Population Estimateshttp//factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?src=bkmk(8) FDA-Island Office Protects Consumers Near and distanthttp//www.fda.gov/forconsumers/consumerupdates/ucm370079.htm(9a) Sparta Systems Survey Finds Food Beverage Companies Confident in FDA Regulation Preparedness-May 5, 2016http//www.spartasystems.com/about-us/press-releases/press-archive/press-releases-2016/sp arta-systems%E2%80%99-survey-finds-food-beverage-compa(9b) Sparta Systems Food Quality and Safety Survey 2016http//marketo.spartasystems.com/rs/084-QBA-512/images/Food_Survey_Results_Report_2016.pdf(10a) Food Engineering ar you ready for the FSMA final rules? April 25, 2016http//www.foodengineeringmag.com/articles/95479-are-you-ready-for-the-fsma-final-rules(10b) 2016 FSMA Readiness Compliance Strategyhttp//marketing.safetychain.com/acton/attachment/2194/f-01d9/1/-/-/-/-/2016%20FSMA%20Readiness%20%26%20Compliance%20Strategy%20Survey%20Report%20Sponsored%20by%20SafetyChain%20and%20TAG.pdf?sid=TV2K3Vrv8uFV(11) Kumar, R. (2014). Research methodology A step-by-step guide for beginners (4th ed.). London SAGE. Chapter 12(12) Strauss, D. M. (2011). An analysis of the FDA food safety modernization act Protection for consumers and boon for business. Food and Drug Law Journal, 66(3), 353(13) Margaret A. Hamburg. Food Safety Modernization Act Putting the Focus on Prevention, Jan. 3. 2011, h ttps//obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2011/01/03/food-safety-modernization-act-putting-focus-prevention(14) The Food Safety and Inspection Service in Puerto Rico https//www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/wcm/connect/8d8574dc-4d0a-4b36-8667-039d8f5f6aac/PR.pdf? advanced=AJPERES(15) Data enviada por OEIO Sepulveda-Evans, J.R. and Lindsay, W.M. (2011),Managing for Quality and Performance Excellence, 8th ed., South-Western Cengage Learning, Mason, OH, pp. 554-555.-Cobb, C. (2000), Knowledge management and quality systems,The 54th Annual Quality Congress Proceedings, 2000, American Society for Quality, pp. 276-287.-Teskey, S., Nassar, M. and Buciarelli, R. (2010),Food Safety beyond the Standards How to Build a Culture of Food Safety to Protect Your Customers and Your gull , Delloite and Touche LLP, available at www.deloitte.com/assets/DcomCanada/Local%20Assets/Documents/Consulting/call%20for%20papers/ca_en_ers_FoodSafety_230910.pdf (accessed March 5,2012).(16) http//hechoenpr.com/directorio-de-se rvicios-y-productos/(17) https//www.prsupplychainonline.com/PRSCO/search.jsf(18) http//cayey.upr.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/10/2016/07/REGLAMENTO-GENERAL-SALUD-AMBIENTAL.pdf(19) ORA Regional Field Office, Southeast Region, Atlanta, GA Organizational Chart https//www.fda.gov/AboutFDA/CentersOffices/OrganizationCharts/ucm351289.htm(20) State sell and Food Service Codes and Regulations by Statehttps//www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceRegulation/RetailFoodProtection/FoodCode/ucm122814.htm(21) FDA- Real show up in Food Code Adoption 02/22/2016 (last visited 02/26/2017)https//www.fda.gov/downloads/Food/GuidanceRegulation/RetailFoodProtection/FoodCode/UCM476819.pdf(22) Departamento de Agricultura de Puerto Rico Inspeccin de Mercadoshttp//www2.pr.gov/agencias/Agricultura/SAIA/InspeccionMercados/Pages/Leyes-y-Reglamentos.aspx(23) Departamento de Asuntos del Consumidor DACOhttp//daco.pr.gov/sobre-nosotros(24) Susan A. Schneider, Notes on Food Law An Overview of the Food Safety Modernization Act, October 10, 2011 2011 Ark. L. Notes 650(25) Rene Johnson, Congressional Research Service, Implementation of the FDA Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA, P.L. 111-353) December 2016(26) Fishman, J. A., Garcia, O. (2011). Handbook of language ethnic identity. 2 The success-failure continuum in language and ethnic identity efforts. Chapter 9 Learning English in Puerto Rico An Approach-Avoidance Conflict? Oxford Oxford University Press.Table 1 Seven Foundational Rules inevitable to Fully Implement FSMA Congressional Research Service Implementation, December 16, 2016(1) hindrance Controls for Human Food Requires that food facilities have safety plans that set forrader how they will identify and minimize hazards (FSMA 103).(2) Preventive Controls for Animal Food Establishes Current Good Manufacturing Practices and preventive controls for food for animals (FSMA 103).(3) Produce Safety Establishes science-based standards for growing, harvesting, packing, and holding produce on domest ic and foreign farms (FSMA 105(a)).(4) Foreign Supplier Verification Program Importers will be required to verify that food imported into the United States has been produced in a manner that provides the same level of public health protection as that required of U.S. food producers (FSMA 301(a)).(5) Third Party certification Establishes a program for the accreditation of third-party auditors to conduct food safety audits and issue certifications of foreign facilities producing food for humans or animals (FSMA 307).(6) Sanitary Transportation Requires those who transport food to use sanitary practices to ensure the safety of food (FSMA 111).(7) Intentional alloy Requires domestic and foreign facilities to address vulnerable processes in their operations to prevent acts intended to cause large-scale public harm (FSMA 106(b))Table 2Classification of food facilities as per the

2D and 3D Games

2D and 3D GamesDifference Between 2D and 3D GamesIntroductionThe last-off concept we should know that what 2D is and what is 3D op erator. 2D promoter 2dimension, here(predicate) everything happens in a 2D plane. a march onle(p) if we bow out each(prenominal) picture on a paper thusly we brook see that plainly from a single placement, what physical body of perspective we follow to draw that picture. For 2D surface the picture would be flat, without information. To draw a 2D picture we occasion matte delineation in like manner. same(p) that in 2D granulars we dissolve see the whole risque from a single perspective whatever we follow to arrive at it. And 3D means 3 dimensions, means here we force out add depth in a picture. In 3D juicys we preciselyt joint see the comp angiotensin converting enzyment part from divergent perspective. present the pictures leave depth and shadow which trade names the picture palpable and it wait ons like more or lessthi ng happens in front of our philia in sincere life.About 2D grainys2D coarse-graineds argon too called Platform plot of ground. The word programme also describes that something held on a chopine. Here the tactical manoeuvreer brook run, jump, shoot, collect powers on a computer program. It is a video back genre 2D plunk fors argon be get hold very old. except some developers still like to bet 2D wagers to get the innovative idea, beca physical exertion we go steady everything from past. Thats why they unavoidablenesss to break away 2D enliveneds to give way their adventure more interesting and get idea to construct some in the altogether feature in their game. loosely the characters of 2D games be cartoonish and unrealistic. We tip pass along a realistic impression in our 2D character. simply in 3D it is possible beca hire of depth. By using depth we fuck make a character which would look like a real. Mostly platform games atomic number 18 establish o n some levels, if the histrion notify kill all enemies or cross a certain part which heshe has to cross (like-Mario) thus only the pseud post drop dead to the contiguous level. In next level may be in that respect would be more enemies which the musician has to kill.As per my knowledge the era of platform games started in the early 1980s and the 3D games started in mid of 1990. on that channel is some confusion that which is the offset printingly 2D games.Frogs is an arcade game which released in 1978, this is the first game where the character can jump on the screen, do the genres earliest ancestor. Space Panic, which is also arcade game and released in 1980, is sometimes credited as the first platform game. Donkey Kong is an arcade game created by Nintendo and released in July 1981, was the first game that allowed pretenders to jump over elements which argon on that hitch and across gaps, make it the first dead on target platformer. There be some recitals o f Donkey Kong. The next variant of Donkey Kong is Donkey Kong junior which is also become a famous game. Donkey Kong avers Mario. The third version of Donkey Kong was not become so famous precisely it succeeds by Mario Bros, which is a platform game and it has an duplication feature of multi defrauder, where two players can play simultaneously. By using the same rule in future(a) umpteen shimmer companies make multiplayer games. Pitfall is a video game released by Activision in 1982 for Atari 2600.Then 16 bit computer had introduced and it brought ontogeny to this genre, this time Saga introduced Mega Drive which is forth times video game console table. This console had introduced in japan in 1988 and 1990 in Europe. It was released in 1989 in northwest America infra the name of Genesis. This was Sagas around successful console. It competes with TurboGafx-16 which was released ane year earlier in Japan under the name of PC Engine.One more console had introduced in th is time that was Super NintendoEntertainment outlineEntertainment System which is also called Super NES. It is also a 16 smirch video game consol which released by Nintendo in 1990. This consol had released in more countries like North America, Europe, Australia, and South America in between 1990 to1993. In Japan and Southeast Asia this system is known as Super Family computer and in South Korea this system is known as Super Comboy which Distri only whened by Hyundai Electronics.Both systems were built for 16-bit computers and offered improved fine art and sound over the 8-bit NES. afterwards Super NES released the Super Mario World released for this consol. To compete with sonic the Hedgehog Saga released sonic the Hedgehog which is platform game developed by Sonic team up and published by Saga for Mega Drive system. It was the first game developed by Sonic Team. Sonic Team is originally known as Saga AM8 which is a Japanese computer and video game developer and establishe d in Ota, Tokyo, Japan in1990. Sonic include a feature of large domain of a function that scrolled effortlessly in all direction as well as readiness of curve hill and a complex physics system that allows player to rush through its level with well placed jumps and rolls. It gives a extensive hit, was a successful pack-in new system.At the end of 16 Bit era some games were released like Yoshis Island and Donkey Kong Country. Then new kind of hardw be was released and it takes players attention, so the attention was totally shifted away from traditional 2D genre.About 3D gamesThe term 3D platformer referred that featured gameplay in trine dimension argona and polygonal 3D graphics. Games which have 3D gameplay but 2D graphics is comes under in Isomertic Games. On the some other hand those games that have 2D gameplay in 3D graphics be called 2.5D that means these games are between 2D and 3D. In 3D we can apply depth to an object which gives it a real look. In 3D games the chara cters are look like real character which exists in real cosmea, we can see the facial expression in characters face. In 3D games in that location are some missions, where the players completes whizz mission indeed heshe go to the next level and next mission would be more tougher than the previous mission. In 3D games multiplayer is mostly played by the players because they want to play unneurotic to beat one another or they make a convocation to beat other group and communicate with one another.After the era of 2D games, period of play companies first tried to make a platform game with 3D game and 2D graphics and isometric perspective. These games are also very old as the genre itself. The first game which have 3D perspective and moving camera came around in the mid 80s. Trailblazer was released for various computer in 1986, use a simple linescroll effect to create a forward scrolling 2.5D (also called pseudo-3D games) play field where players manipulated a bouncing ball to l eap over obstructions and pitfalls.In 1987, Squaresoft released 3D World Runner, which is a forward scrolling action game, here in this game the player has to leap over obstacles and chasms. In 1990, an Estonian developer called Bluemoon released Kosmonaut which is a forward-scrolling campaign/action game exchangeable to Trailblazer, which consisted almost entirely of difficult platform-jumping obstacle courses. While the gameplay took place in lead dimensions, and the graphics were polygonal it is considered pseudo-3D because it used a fixed quite a littlepoint. Alpha waves which is a French computer game is to be found as the earliest example of a true 3D platformer, which is created by Christophe de Dinechin and published by Inforgrames in 1990 for the Atari ST, Amiga and PC. 3D games give the character a tranquil safari, the camera angles would be from opposite point of spatial relation.A small developer called Exact released a game for the X68000 computer called Geograp h postage in 1994. This game was fully 3D polygonal first someone shooter hybrid with platform jumping component. Players piloted a frog that could jump, and so double jump, and triple jump high into the air, as the camera is also liftd to describe players jump and landing. In addition to shooting, jumping on enemies was a primary feature of attack. This was the first 3D platform game that released in Japan, but it never ported to another platform and not released outside(a) of Japan. The following year, Exact released their follow-up to Geograph Seal for Sonys new PlayStation console. Jumping cheesy, released in April 1995, this game is generally regarded as a direct subsequence of the gameplay concepts in Geograph Seal, which was likewise a mix of first-person shooting and platforming, with correspondent controls and camera-work. Here the frog was more cartoonish than the previous one its like a pika which is called Robbit. In this game the level design had an even gi ganticer condense on platform gaming, it was released in Europe and North America. It was titled as first 3D consol game. A Saga Saturn game Bug Was released in 1995, it offered a more conservative approach to true 3D platforming. In this game players could move in all directions, but it did not allow movement along more than one axis at once the player could move left to right, or forward and backward, but not diagonally left and backward at the same time. This game was very similar to 2D games but considered as true 3D games. This game had an pointless feature that the player could climb on wall and ceiling, which was a great success.2D platformer game In 1995 Fade to Black was released by Delphine package which was a sequel of their popular 2D platformer game Flashback, it was the first drive to bring a popular 2D platform game serial publication into 3D. It had puzzle-oriented level design style and step-based control. It dose not follow the criteria of platform game and it came under action adventure game. It used true 3D characters and other objects. But its environment were created using rigid engine which was similar to Wolffenstein 3D in that it could only render square flat corridors. Sony, Saga and Nintendo were under great deal of pressure to release mascot platformer before 1996 spend season. Sony favour an existing project by developers Naughty Dog, which was a small developer at the time who released the Way of the Warrior recently. Then Crash Bandicoot beat Nintendos new console to foodstuff in North America and it was released in the time for the holiday in Japan. Before switching to multiplatform releases in the following console generation crash would remain Sonys unofficial mascot for the next several years. Then Saga had tasked their American studio, STI, with bringing Sonic the Hedgehog into 3D. The project was titled as Sonic Xtream, it was to feature a radically different approach for the series with fisheye camera and multidir ectional gameplay like Bug3D games give the player a great area of play field than 2D platform games. lowest Fantasy VII was a major breakthrough in RPG first person shooter which is still so popular game. Tomb passenger was one of the best exchange game on the PlayStation in gaming industry. Sixteen generation era was the best system selling era. By the time Saga had produced 3D Sonic games Sonic Adventure on its new Dreamcast console. It used to play smoothly the games like Mario 64 with some excess feature, mostly it emphasis on speed. Then Nintendo launched GameCube console without releasing either platform game for it, but in 2002 Nintendo released Super Mario Sunshine that was the irregular 3D Mario game. Because of low numbers of level, and its level design was not so good so it was failed to make a good grocery storeing. Platform game is a vital genre but it was failure to capture the popularity and market that they held once in 1998. In 1998 platform games had 15% of share of market but within four year it comes knock down in 2% while the RPG and first person shooter have continued the explicate and popularity.Similarity In 2D and 3D gamesGoalThere are some similarities in 2D and 3D games like both the game have some goal that player has to finish that then only heshe can move to the next level or mission or win the game.ControlIn both the games the character has the ability to move forward, backward, jump, shoot to kill their enemies. It depends on the game, which game we are playacting. If it is an intelligent based game then the controls would be different.ConsoleBoth the games are made for some console for 3D there are some extra consoles are there. Playstation 2, playstation 3 are the consoles for 3D games.Replay AbilityIn both kind of game another main similarities is replay ability. We can play several times. Like if we loose one level then we can play it again to win that level and move to the next level.Difference between 2D and 3D g amesCharacterThe major rest between 2D and 3D games are their characters. In 2D games the characters are like cartoonish, they dont look like a real one. But in 3D characters sometimes they also look like cartoonish but callable to depth the characters look like real. In 3D characters we can show the emotion in characters face. The characters take position when heshe shoot hisher enemy.InteractionWe can see the 2D character from only one perspective view may it be from side view, top view or players eye view (here the camera is placed behind the character). We cant implement all of these in a 2D game. But in 3D games we can see the player from different point of view in a game. We can move the camera in 3d games in three directions-sideway, up and down. Some of the games like Warcraft 2, Fifa here we use isometric point of view. This angle is not comes under 2D nor 3D. In isometric view the camera angle would be some fixed angel from where the characters look like 3D character. Bu t these are not 3D games. fine artAnd another major remnant is graphics, in 2D computer graphics are digital paradigms.There are two types of graphics one is Raster graphics and another one is Vector graphics. Raster graphics or electronic image are composing by array of picture element, here each pixel has different color or shade. They are editing by changing color array by array. These are used to make wandering(a) phone games, very old computer games. Vector graphics are composed with path, here path are use to establishing mathematical kindred between points within the image. In photographic images vector graphics are mainly used. 3D computer graphics are use to settle the 3D nonrepresentationalal data. Then these datas are manipulated by the computer via 3D computer graphics software to customize their display, movement, and other appearance. Sometimes we use some 3D model which is a mathematical representation of geometric data that is contained in a data file.In 3D ch aracter we can implement light, shadows by using some software like-3ds Max,Autodesk Maya and so forth by using these softwares we can make some character and then we can implement those characters in our games.BackgroundIn 2D games we use a simple picture or some matte painting image for background, but in 3D games we use skybox that is the surrounding world. Skybox is a box which covered by some image which we can make by collage work in Adobe Photoshop. But there is a condition that in that image both edges should be similar. I mean it should be snapped together edge-to-edge. Then only we can feel the real world, if any difference is shown in that image then we cant see the proper output which we want. Then we have to import that image in Autodesk Maya or any 3D modeling software. So we should be very careful when we work on skybox. take DesignLevel design is based on games that which type of game it is. Before implementing we should be very clear that how umpteen players are in the game, how many levels we are going to create. First we have to know that what we are going to make a 2D game or a 3D game. Because here realism do some matters. In 2D games it doesnt matters too some(prenominal) but in 3D games it gives a giganticgest difference. In 3D games we have to give a close attention on Texturing, lighting, and all the other things would be in three dimension.System RequirementTo run a 2D game the system requirement is not a big factor. It takes hardly 512 Mb RAM, without graphics bill we can play 2D games in our system. It does not make difference too much in gameplay. We can play some 3D games also in this configuration. But some games are made with high graphics for that we need at least 1 GB RAM and if we use graphics card also with this configuration then the game would be more smooth and we can see the texture and the other things which used in the game would be visible clearly.Game EngineGame engine is a kind of library, in library we can read books, if forget approximately the topic which studied then we can read it again. That means we can reuse the source. Like that game engine is a library of affection function which we use in game. Game engines are as usually related to graphic, networking, input and other system. This is not a part of gameplay but it is a non specific part of game. By using this engine we can make several games. In most of the game engine we can play 2D and 3D games both.Key ControlIn 2D games we use around 5-7 keys to control the whole game, hardly we take 10keys. This many key controls are enough for a 2D game. Sometimes we use mouse and some keys to control a game, and sometimes we use only mouse to control a 2D game (e.g.-Duck Hunt). But to control 3D game it takes around 15-20 keys and mouse to control the whole game. In a mission based sputtering game like Delta military group we choose primary weapon, secondary weapon, bombs, grenades, binocular, map and many other options are there.Bel ievability2D games do not give a real feel. We play 2D game just for fun. Mostly children love to play 2D games, because these kinds of games are easier for them and they enjoy it. 3D games are looks real which I already discussed, it feels like the player itself in the battle ground. The surrounding world gives that feel. There are some simulation games which are so original. Mostly this kind of games made for soldiers to give them training by playing games. In Simulation games the controls are exactly same which exist in the real thing. Like if a player drive an aero plane then the controls and the activities are be exactly there which exist in real aero plane. The enemies would come they also try to crash players plane. If the plane crash then the player would feel vibration, which gives the reality of that game.Market of 2D gamesThe market of 2D game becomes very low because nobody wants to play this kind of game. When 2D games first released it was so popular, gaming companies got million dollars as profit by selling 2D games. Because 2D games were new things for people, so they tried this to accept the challenge. But now these kinds of games are become very old. This is the era of 3D games most of the gaming companies who made 2D games are now making 3D games because of market demand. Now people become fading up by playing 2D games, they want something more. 3D games give them a different feel to the players. So people love 3D games and it has a great market. Companies do not want to make any 2D games because of its down market, but also we make 2D games.To learn closely making 2D games gaming colleges first learn about 2D games, thats why 2D games are still producing in the market.Online play optionWe play online games which are called MMO that is Massive Multiplayer Online games. When we play online games nobody wants to play 2d games, they want to play 3D games. Online playing game is a genre of share playing computer games with a large number of pl ayers interact with one another in a virtual gaming world. Like when we play Counter Strike in online then we make two teams and fight with opposite team. First we choose one character, called Avatar then we start playing. In game we can commend to my mates to cover me, dress bomb and more other commends.Future DevelopmentAll gaming companies do not want to make 2D games, they are concentrating on producing 3D games. Whatever games they released they wants to improve them and make a new version of that game. People do not like to play 2D games but still 2D games are producing because in gaming institute first they teach us how we can make a 2D game. It is the canonic idea of making game they start with 2D games and then learn about 3D games. In future gaming companies try to make 3D games by adding some extra feature. May be they introduce some new console for playing game.ConclusionWhatever difference between 2D and 3D games, players do not care on it. Whatever game we play, we p lay just for entertainment. We just want some relaxation after doing lot of work, so we play game. We play games sometimes to learn something. By playing 2D games children learn so many things. Like color, shape, fruit name, flower name etc. by playing that kind of game which give them knowledge about these things.Bibliographyhttp//hge.relishgames.com/http//2dengine.com/page.php?p=abouthttp//gpwiki.org/index.php/Game_Engineshttp//www.devmaster.net/engines/http//www.selfgrowth.com/articles/Key_Advantage_And_Difference_Between_3D_Games_And_2D_Games.htmlhttp//ezinearticles.com/?Whats-the-Difference-Between-2D-and-3D-Anyway?id=1634425http//www.gameproducer.net/2007/07/27/differences-between-2d-and-3d-gameart-production/http//forums.guestbook.com.tw/thread-43939-1-1.htmlhttp//books.google.co.in/books?id=iX3oWHNf9hMCpg=PA209lpg=PA209dq=difference+between+2d+and+3d+gamessource=blots=jdvcEWDJDmsig=KA0WKC9fGQaqMMmJ_Adeyl6qwMYhl=enei=9OFiSqoexoCRBd_jlfoPsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=7http //blog.media-freaks.com/discerning-between-2d-and-3d/http//www.theiphonedvd.com/blog/understanding-the-difference-between-2dand-3d-animations/http//www.americanchronicle.com/articles/view/107414http//www.articlesbase.com/graphic-design-articles/2d-and-3d-computergraphics-553432.htmlWord doc goes here, ignore any pictures that are in them

Properties of Zeolites as Cataystics

Properties of Zeolites as Cataystics1.0 INTRODUCTION TO ZEOLITESZeolites atomic number 18 vapourous aluminosilicates, composed of TO4 tetrahedra (T = Si, Al) with O atoms connecting neighbouring tetrahedral, that view as pores and cavities of molecular dimensions (Breck, 1974). Many occur as cancel minerals, besides it is the celluloid varieties which ar among the most widely practice sessiond sorbents, catalysts and ion- re-sentencing materials in the world (Barrer, 1982).The transmit be large enough to allow the passage of guest species. In the hyd gaitd phases, dehydration occurs at temperatures broadly below about cdC and is largely reversible. The fashion model may be interrupted by (OH, F) groups these occupy a tetrahedron apex that is not sh ard with adjacent tetrahedra. Zeolites ar different from other porous hydrates, as they retain their structural oneness upon loss of urine.The Structure Commission of the International Zeolite Association identifies each material with a three-letter mnemonic code (Baerlocher et al., 2001) e.g. Amicite- GSI Faujasite- FAU etc.1.1 IMPORTANCE OF GREEN PROCESSESIn the chemic substance substance industry, the acceptability of a summons is not only governed by cost and yield but in terms of eco-friendliness and pollution abatement. Choosing a more(prenominal) than efficient catalytic route has greatly improved the power of chemical functiones.Green chemistry has been defined as the design of chemical products and does in order to clip or eliminate the generation of raging substances (Armor, 1999). The principles of green chemistry listed by Armor (1999) employs future approaches to revolutionary chemical processes. It includes efficient use of raw materials, energy efficiency, use of biodegradable products and other subtle features.2.0 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ZEOLITES2.1 NATURAL ZEOLITESResearch in the line of merchandise of zeolite acquaintance and technology made its first steps with innat e(p) zeolites and was mostly foc utilise on native zeolites until the beginning of the 1950s. The history of zeolites began in 1756 when Swedish mineralogist A.F. Cronstedt discovered the first zeolite mineral, stilbite when theatreing its apparent properties discovered its strange behavior upon heating although in that location is no certain proof of its identity. The term zeolite was coined from cardinal Greek words, zeo (to boil) and lithos (stone). On the contrary, the first zeolite, chabazite, described by Bosch DAntic in 1792 has puzzle out evidence in literature. Several other zeolites were discovered in the following years and around 1850, only about 20 zeolite graphic symbols were musical themeed in mineralogy books, including analcime, brewsterite, chabazite, edingtonite, epistilbite, faujasite, gismondine, gmelinite, harmotome, heulandite, laumontite, levyne, mesolite, natrolite, phillipsite, scolecite, stilbite, and thomsonite. Starting from the middle of the 19 th century until about 1975, there was a moderate increment in the number of zeolites discovered (about one new type every 6-7 years) and a clear acceleration in the pull through twenty five-thirty years. About 40 rude(a) zeolites are cognize (Tschernich, 1992). close zeolites known to occur in nature are of lower Si/Al ratios, since organic fertiliser structure-directing agents necessary for physical composition of siliceous zeolites are absent. some cadences natural zeolites are found as large single vitreous silicas, though are very difficult to make in the laboratory. The catalytic natural process of natural zeolites is limited by their impurities and low surface areas.However, interests in natural zeolites shifted towards zeolite entailment and synthetic materials, as they offered a series of advantages such as wider versatility, more open mannikins( for adsorption and catalysis),and quality in constitution and chemistry. As a proceeds, research on natural zeolites, was brinyly devoted to ion transpose process which was discovered around 1850 (Thompson, 1850 Way, 1850). Few years later, Eichhorn observed that chabazite and natrolite be breakd as reversible ion exchangers. In the early decades of the 20th century, ion exchange selectivity of a variety of zeolites for peculiar cations, e.g., ammonium was per peeed (Barrer, 1950) and starting from the end of the 1950s, found uses in various sectors of environmental relevance, e.g., treatment of wastewaters and soil rebuilding and remediation. The most upstart frontier in the application of natural zeolites is in the field of feeling eruditions.One of the drawbacks of natural zeolite research for application purposes is due(p) to the limited availability of zeolite as it is a precious mineral, compared to the synthetic counterparts which could be mass produced at a lower cost (Colella, 2005).2.1.1 FormationThe pathway of natural zeolite blueprintation is similar to the laboratory implicatio n of zeolite. Zeolite nucleation, crystallisation and crystal growth comeback place as a result of relax to fast locomotive cooling system of warm to hot magmas(of volcanic origin), which are basic, oversaturated in silicate and aluminate species and contain alcalescent and/or alkali-earth cations.hot fluid + volcanic ash oversaturated basic magma zeolite crystals radical + gel)The magma is obtained via hydrolysis of the original glassy material and is responsible for the tetrahedral coordination of aluminium and together with silicon. The main factors responsible for the structural formation are temperature, chemistry of the ash and the chemical composition of the resulting solution. Gel is formed along the process but is even not directly connected to nucleation and growth, as there is evidence that zeolite nuclei form from the oversaturated solution at the glass shards / solution interface (Aiello et al., 1980).Temperature and time are two factors which differentiate natura l zeolitisation from laboratory implication.2.1.2 Physico-chemical propertiesi.Cation exchange The ion exchange properties of natural zeolites depend on their chemistry which is generally in terms of selectivity. Selectivity depends on the frame escape topology, ion size and shape, charge density on the anionic mannequin, ion valence and electrolyte assimilation in the aqueous phase (Barrer et al., 1978).ii.Reactions with alkalis Oncein alkaline environments, zeolites exit unstable as they tend to transform, similarlyto glassy systems, into more stable phases, usually into other framework silicates (Goto and Sand, 1988). The interaction of zeolite-rich materials with Ca(OH)2 give rise to calcium silicates and aluminates, which upon hydration are able to chasten in both aerial and aqueous environments. This behaviour makes them to be known as pozzolanic materialsThermal properties Heating of zeolite powder induces physical and chemical changes, which have been shown to include w ater loss (which causes expansion on heating), decomposition and foul up evolution, phase inflection, structure breakdown, re-crystallisation, melting etc (Colella, 1998). This property enables zeolite tuff stones to dis lam headspring behaved sound-proofing and heat insulation and serve as good building materials. Depending on zeolite nature, chemical composition and rock constitution, the tuff expands as a result of quick heating at temperatures of 1250C or higher up, inadvertently followed by a rapid quenching to room temperature.2.2 SYNTHETIC ZEOLITESEarly work could be traced back to the claimed tax deduction of levynite by St Cl breezee Deville in 1862 as there were no reliable methods for fully identifying and characterising the products. The origin of zeolite tax deduction however, evolved from the work of Richard Barrer and Robert Milton which commenced in the late 1940s. The first synthetic zeolite unknown as a natural mineral later found to have the KFI structure ( Baerlocher et al., 2001 ) was discovered by Barrer when investigating the conversion of known mineral phases under the action of knock-down(prenominal) salt solutions at fairly high temperatures (ca. 170-270 C). Robert Milton was the first person to use freshly precipitated aluminosilicate gels to carry out reactions under milder conditions. This led to the discovery of zeolites A and X (Milton et al., 1989). Initially, the synthesis of zeolites required the use of only inorganic reactants but was however expanded in 1961 to include quaternary ammonium cations trail to the discovery of silica-rich phases (high-silica zeolites). Subsequently, more synthetic zeolites have been discovered (Baerlocher et al., 2001), as well as zeolite-like or zeolite-related materials (Szostak, 1989) known as zeotypes- re leaveed by microporous alumino- and gallo phosphates (AlPO4s and GaPO4s) and titanosilicates.Studies on understanding zeolite synthesis have continued to be carried out upto the pres ent day (Table 1). This has been due to discoveries of new materials, advances in synthetic procedures, innovations in divinatory modelling methods and, especially, by the development of new techniques for the investigation of reaction mechanisms and the picture of products.Table 1 Evolution of materials development in the zeolite field slump Si/Al zeolites (1-1.5)A, XIntermediate Si/Al zeolites (f2-5) A)cancel zeolites erionite, chabazite, clinoptilolite,MordeniteSynthetic zeolites Y, L, large-pore mordenite, omega juicy Si/Al zeolites (10-100)By thermochemical framework modification super silicious variants of Y, mordenite, erioniteBy direct synthesis ZSM-5, silicon oxideteSilica molecular sievessilicaliteSource Flanigen (1980)2.2.1 Mechanism of Hydro caloric tax deductionExperimental observations of a typical hydrothermal zeolite synthesisDue to its chemical re application and low cost, amorphous and oxide-like Si and Al which make up the microporous framework are mixed with a cation source usually, in a basic water-based medium. The resulting aqueous mixture is so heated in a sealed autoclave at above 100C allowing the reactants to remain amorphous for sometime (induction period) aft(prenominal) which gossamer zeolites are detected (Figure 2). Gradually, an approximately equal mass of zeolite crystals which is recovered by filtration, washing and drying replaces all the amorphous materials (Cundy and Cox, 2005).The bond type created in the crystalline zeolite product (e.g. zeolite A or ZSM-5) which contains Si-O-Al linkages is similar to that present in its harbinger oxides, therefore the enthalpy change is not great. This process reduces nucleation rates, thereby forming large crystals.Reactivity of the gel, temperature and pH affect the rate of zeolite formation as an enlarge in pH and temperature leads to increase in the rate of formation of zeolite crystals. In their mother liquors, the zeolitic phases are metastable, thereby transforming the initial zeolite into an undesired thermodynamically more stable phase (Ullmann, 2002).2.2.3 Synthesis from clay mineralsKaolin and metakaolin (calcining kaolin at 500-700C) are two big ashess employ for the production of the zeolites NaA, NaX, and NaY (Breck, 1974 Barrer, 1978) because ring-binder-free extrudates and granules which offer advantages in adsorption technology are produced.2Al2Si2O5(OH)42Al2Si2O7+4H2OKaolin MetakaolinDepending on the zeolite, the clay is shaped and, SiO2and seed crystals are added and while in the preformed shape, the zeolite crystallises. Alternatively, zeolite is formed when the binder component of metakaolin undergoes hydrothermal treatment with sodium hydroxide solution (Goytisolo et al., 1973 Chi and Hoffman, 1977). utilise ultrasonic radiation, reaction rate is enhanced and there is energy rescue and lower production cost due to lower temperatures. This process is less(prenominal) often used as it could cause odor of the product due to impu rities present in clay e.g. iron2.2.2 Industrial Zeolite SynthesisZeolite synthesis is an extremely broad area of research and due to differences in the readiness of each zeolite type, two representative zeolite types, TPA-ZSM-5 and zeolite Na-A, are chosen for a more detailed presentation of the synthesis Table 2 (Jansen, 2001).Table 2 Synthesis mixtures, physical chemical properties of the representative zeolitesMolar oxide ratioNa-ATPA-ZSM-5SiO211Al2O30.5Na2O10.16H2O1749TPA2O0.3T (C) one hundred fiftyPhysical chemical substance propertiesPore arrangements3D, cages connected via windows2D, intersecting channelsBronsted activitylowHighAffinityhydrophilicHydrophobicPore lot (cm3/g)0.370.18Source Jansen (2001)The composition of zeolite product can be expressed by the cation type and its overall Si/Al ratio. In the preparation of zeolite, nucleation is the rate determining step which is influenced by a range of factors dependent on the temperature of the reaction mixture.Low Temp erature Reaction Mixture Here, the reaction mixture is disposed(p) at low temperature, At high pH, condensation occurs when the nucleophilic deprotonated silanol group on monomeric neutral species is attacked (Figure 5). The panellingity of the silanol group depends on the number and type of substituents on the silicon-atom (Jansen, 2001).Temperature raise of the reaction mixture from High Temperature Reaction Mixture At this temperature, zeolites are formed from amorphous material which involves, reorganisation of the low temperature synthesis mixture, nucleation and precipitancy (crystallisation). During the induction period, gel and species in solution rearrange from a continuous changing phase of monomers and clusters which disappears through hydrolysis and condensation, in which nucleation occurs (Jansen, 2001). The process particles become stable and nuclei forms, followed by crystallisation which could occur in metastable solid, highly dispersed or dense gel forms.Product q uality, reaction time and yield influence efficient production of zeolites by optimising their composition.2.2.2 Secondary Synthesis MethodsCatalytic or adsorbent properties that cannot be achieved by direct synthesis utilise post-synthesis (secondary) treatments to increase catalytic activity, shape selectivity or porosity and thermal/hydrothermal stability. Dealumination and ion exchange are used to carry out these modifications.DealuminationThe zeolite structure is selectively dealuminated by acid solutions, washing out aluminium out of the crystal, as was observed for zeolite A. However, for higher silica containing materials (clinoptilolite), a fully decationated structure is produced after continuous acid treatment. The metal ion is replaced with H3O+ followed by (Al+3 + H3O+) removal, generating a hydroxyl nest.Aluminium is removed from the framework but not the crystal by hydrothermal dealumination. The heterogeneity in the concentration of the framework and non-framework of aluminium depends on the type of modification used. Hydrothermal treatment causes the amorphous aluminium to collect on the crystal surface which through fluorosilicate treatment can reduce aluminium centred acid sites. Often, a secondary pore system is generated and hydroxyl nests can be annealed. In order to enhance the catalytic properties as well as stability, silicon, aluminium and other metal ions are introduced into the framework (Szostak, 2001). Other methods of producing thermally and hydrothermally stable cracking catalysts include use of EDTA, SiCl4 drying up, and (NH4)2SiF6.Acid mediated dealumination process via aluminium extraction and generation of hydroxyl nest (Szostak, 2001)Ion ExchangeThis is an grave technique in pore-size engineering for the production of zeolitic adsorbents (Breck, 1974). Ion exchange used in the production of Brnsted acid sites has major importance in the synthesis of solid acid catalysts (Ullmann, 2002). Ion exchange can be achieved also , for certain intermediate-silica and high-silica zeolites (e.g., mordenite) by treatment with mineral acids although involves the risk of dealuminating the zeolite framework (McDaniel and Maher, 1976). An indirect route via an ion exchange with ammonium salt solutions must be followed, producing the ammonium form calcined at ca. 400C to liberate ammonia water and give the hydrogen form (Ullmann, 2002). When cations to be exchanged are positioned inaccessible cages, a sieve set is produced.pH is an important factor in ion exchanging of highly charged transformation metal ions in order to prevent metal hydroxide precipitation especially at low pH.2.3 CHARACTERISATION OF ZEOLITESIn order to look out the relationships between the physical and physicochemical as well as sorptive and catalytic properties of zeolites, it is important to know the structural, chemical and catalytic characteristics of zeolites. Several standard techniques are employed in zeolite characterisation. The most common of which is X-ray diffraction used in determining the structure and purity of zeolites. Others include x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) or atomic absorption spectrometry, used to analyze elemental composition, sorption analysis to study the pore system, IR-spectroscopy, typically using adsorbed probe molecules to characterize the acid sites, examine electron microscopy (SEM), for determining the size and morphology of zeolite crystallites, high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, temperature programme desorption (TPD) and many others (Schth, 2005).3.0 GENERAL APPLICATIONS OF ZEOLITESZeolites are used primarily in 3 major applications ion-exchange, adsorbents, and catalysts. earthy zeolites correspond an important subroutine in absolute majority mineral applications.Adsorbent applications super acid adsorbent applications focus on removal of small polar molecules and bulk withdrawals, by more aluminous zeolites and based on molecular sieving processes individually (Table 3).Table 3 Zeolite commercial applications as adsorbentsPurificationBulk separationsDrying natural gas (including LNG), cracking gas (ethylene plants), refrigerantNormal/iso-paraffin separation, Xylene separationCO2 removal natural gas, flue gas (CO2 + N2) cryogenic air separation plantsOlefin separation, Separation of organic solventsPollution abatement removal of Hg, NOx, SOSeparation of amino acids, n-nitrosoaminesSweetening of natural gas and turn petroleum gasSeparation of CO2, SO2, NH3Source Flanigen (1980).Catalyst applicationsZeolites have the superior use in catalytic cracking. They also play a role in hydroisomerisation, hydrocracking and remindfuls processing. The strong acidity of zeolites plays a role in hydrocarbon processing. Asides this, they are finding increasing use in synthesis of fine chemicals and organic intermediates in isomerisation reactions, nucleophilic substitution and addition et c.Table 4 Zeolite applications in CatalysisInorganic reactions H2S oxidation, NO decrement of NH3, CO oxidation, reductionHydrocarbon conversion Alkylation, CrackingOrganic reactions Aromatization (C4 hydrocarbons), Aromatics (disproportionation, hydroalkylation, hydrogenation, hydroxylation, nitration, etc.)DehydrationEpoxidationBeckman rearrangement(cyclohexanone to caprolactam)Methanol to gasolinechlorofluorocarbon decompositionShape-selective reformingSource Flanigen (1980) Galarneau et al (2001).Ion-exchange applicationsZeolite properties are directly exploited in several applications such as in the detergent industry, where zeolites are used for water softening or building, animal food supplementation and in the treatment of wastewater (Townsend and Coker, 2001). Zeolite A has selectivity for Ca2+, thereby providing a unique advantage. Also, natural zeolites can be used to remove of Cs+ and Sr 2+radioisotopes through ion-exchange (Payra and Dutta, 2003).Table 5 Applications a nd advantages of Ion-exchangeApplicationsAdvantageMetals removal and recoveryHigh selectivities for various metalsRemoval of Cs+ and Sr2+Stable to ionizing radiationDetergent constructor zeolite A, zeolite X (ZB-100, ZB-300)Remove Ca2+ and Mg2+ by selective exchange, no environmental paradoxIon exchange fertilizersExchange with plant nutrients such as NH4+ and K+ with slow release in soilSource Flanigen (1980)Other ApplicationsZeolites also play important roles in health-related applications (such as antibacterial agents, vaccine adjuvants, drug delivery, elevate formation, biosensors and enzyme mimetics), oil refining, and petrochemical processes. Zeolite powders are used for odor removal and as waxy additives. Zeolitic membranes offer the possibility of organic transformations and separations coupled into one unit (Payra and Dutta, 2003).3.1 ZEOLITES AND THE purlieuNearly all applications of zeolites are driven by environmental concerns, from alter toxic (nuclear) wastes, to treatment of wastewater, thereby reducing pollution. Zeolites have now been used to replace harmful phosphate builders in powder detergents due to water pollution risks. Zeolite catalysts help to save energy as they make chemical processes more efficient, minimising un-necessary waste and by-products. When used as solid catalysts and redox catalysts/sorbents, they reduce the need for corrosive liquid acids and remove atmospheric pollutants, (such as engine exhaust gases and ozone-depleting CFCs) respectively (Bell, 2001). In wastewater, zeolites (clinoptilolite, mordenite) are used to remove ammonia and ammonium ions (Townsend and Coker, 2001), as well as heavy metal cations and transition metals.3.2 ZEOLITE CATALYSTS IN GREEN CHEMISTRYZeolite catalysts have contributed to the design and synthesis of unexampled materials and development of new methodologies in organic synthesis, displacing the conventional and waste generating reagents thereby maximising atom utilization and reduc ing waste generated (E-factor).Zeolites play an important role in acid-catalyzed reactions such as acylation, alkylation, isomerisation and condensation, cyclisation and electrophilic aromatic substitution.Acylation of aromatic substrates used in fine chemicals manufacture although has proven unsuccessful in less reactive aromatic compounds due to adsorption imbalance, unless performed in vapor phase using H-ZSM-5 (Singh and Pandey, 1997).4.0 CONCLUSIONDue to the role zeolites play mainly as catalysts in the environment as well as in chemical industry, the efficiency of the zeolite catalysts has been greatly improved. The yield and selectivity of the zeolite process is quantitative and in addition, reduces energy requirements, capital costs and complexity of equipments.Over the years, the synthesis process of zeolites have encompassed the principles of green chemistry as described in the report which has included waste prevention, energy efficiency, fewer environmental impacts, safe r solvents, renewable materials, process intensification, catalysis and reduction in capital cost.Though present techniques have the appearance _or_ semblance to apply some of the principles of green chemistry, further research is still being employed to improve the overall process.3.0 REFERENCESAiello, R., Colella, C., Casey, D. G. and Sand, L.B. 1980. In L.V.C. Rees, ed. Proc. 5th Int. Conf. on Zeolites. Heyden Son, London, U.K. pp. 49.Armor, J. N. employ Catalysis A 189 (1999) 153-162.Baerlocher, C., Meier, W.M., Holson, D. 2001. Atlas of Zeolite Framework Types. 5th ed. Amsterdam Elsevier.Barrer, R. M. 1978.Zeolite and Clay Minerals as Sorbents and Molecular Sieves. Academic Press, London.Barrer, R.M. 1978. In L.B. Sand and F.A. Mumpton, eds. Natural Zeolites. Occurrence, Properties, Use. Pergamon Press, Elmsford, NY. pp. 385.Barrer, R.M. 1982. Hydrothermal chemistry of Zeolites Academic Press London.Barrer, R.M. J. Chem. Soc. (1950) 2342.Bell, R.G. 2001. Zeolites. OnlineAv ailable at http//www.bza.org/zeolites.html. Accessed 1 May 2010.Breck, D.W. 1974. Zeolite Molecular Sieves. radical York Wiley.Colella, C. 1998. In J. Ma. Rincon and M. Romero, eds. Characterization Techniques of Glasses and Ceramics. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg, Germany. pp. 112.Colella, C. 2005. Natural zeolites. In J. Cejka and H. van Bekkum, eds.Stud surfboard Sci Catal 157.Cundy, C. S., Cox, P. A. 2003 .The Hydrothermal Synthesis of Zeolites History and Development from the Earliest Days to the Present Time. Chem. Rev.103, pp.663-701.Cundy, C.S. and Cox, P.A. 2005. The hydrothermal synthesis of zeolites Precursors, intermediates and reaction mechanism. Microporous and Mesoporous Materials. 82, 1-78.Damour, A., Hebd, C. R. Seances Acad. Sci. 44 (1857), pp. 975 also Ann. Chim. Phys., 3rd series, 53 (1858), pp. 438 (in French).De Gennaro, M., Colella, C., Franco, E. and Stanzione, D. Neues Jahrb. Mineral.-Mon.hefte. H.4(1988)149.Flanigen, E.M. 1980. Pure Appl Chem 522191- 2211.Galarneau, A., Di Renzo, F., Fajula, F., Vedrine, J. eds., 2001. Zeolites and Mesoporous Materials at the Dawn of the 21st Century. Stud Surf Sci Catal 135.Goto and L.B. Sand. 1988. In D. Kallo and H.S. Sherry, eds. Occurrence, Properties and Utilisations of Natural Zeolites. Akademiai Kiado, Budapest, Hungary. pp. 161.Jansen, J.C. 2001. The preparation of oxide molecular sieves synthesis of zeolites. In H. Van Bekkum, E.M. Flanigen, P.A. Jacobs, J.C. Jansen, eds. Introduction to zeolite light and practice.2nd ed. Stud Surf Sci Catal 137.Lancaster, M. 2002. Green Chemistry an introductory text. Cambridge kinglike participation of chemistry. Ch.4.McDaniel, C.V., Maher, P.K. In J. A. Rabo, ed. Zeolite Chemistry and Catalysis. ACS Monogr.171(1976) pp.285Milton, R.M. In M.L. Occelli, H.E. Robson, eds. Zeolite Synthesis. ACS Symp. Ser. 398 (1989) pp.1Payra, P., Dutta, P.K. 2003. Zeolites A Primer. In S.M. Auerbach, K. Carrado, P.K. Dutta, eds. Handbook of zeolite science and tech nology.New York Marcel Dekker Inc. Ch.1.Schth, F. 2005. In J. Cejka and H. van Bekkum, eds. High-throughput experiments for synthesis and applications of zeolites. Stud Surf Sci Catal 157.Sheldon, R.A. 2000. A special topic issue on green chemistry jot efficiency and catalysis in organic synthesis. Pure Appl. Chem., 72(7), pp. 1233-1246.Singh, A. P., Pandey, A. K. J. Mol. Catal. A Chemical 123(1997), 141Szostak, R. 1989. Molecular Sieves Principles of Synthesis and Identification. 2nd Edition Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, Blackie, London.Thompson, H.S. J. Royal Agric. Soc. Engl. 11 (1850), pp. 68.Townsend, R.P., Coker, E.N. 2001. Ion exchange in zeolites. In H. Van Bekkum, E.M. Flanigen, P.A. Jacobs, J.C. Jansen, eds. Introduction to zeolite science and practice. 2nd ed. Stud Surf Sci Catal 137.Tschernich, R.W. 1992. Zeolites of the World. Phoenix Geoscience Press.Ullmann Encyclopaedia of Industrial Chemistry. 2002. Zeolites. Wiley Interscience.W.R. aggrandize Co., DE2707313, 1977 (C. W. Chi, G. H. Hoffman).W.R. Grace Co., US3906076, 1973 (J. A. Goytisolo, D. D. Chi, H. Lee).Way, J.T. J. Royal Agric. Soc. Engl. 11 (1850), pp. 313.

Health and Social Care Essays red dot system

nearlyness and Social C ar Essays tearing exile organizationIntroductionIn the frequently frantic and universally pressu bolshie world of the AE de compositionments of this countrys hospitals, mistakes get made. This is a item of life. In any human nullifyeavour this is sadly legitimate. Until freshly, the blame burnish that was prevalent within the NHS, made certain protective behaviour patterns amongst supply al often or less endemic (Vincent, 1994). It is oneness of the characteristics of a professional person life that you withdraw to take function for your actions. If you take the wrong action, you give be criticised. This defensive attitude was, to a large extent, foste blood- passing by the professional health insurers who, upset about paying out large quantities of their funds, demanded secrecy, no apology and a defensive stance from those that they insu rubicund.(Clinical Services Committee)It became app arnt to those who were in a touch to check an ov erview of the stead that such(prenominal) a situation was genuinely in nobodys inte confront (Barley, 2000). Healthc ar professionals were practising defensive treat, tol termnts were macrocosm kept in the ominous when mistakes were made, and nearly outstanding of all, beca handling line of works were non meditated in an open and constructive way, robust lessons were non learnt. All that was happening was that defensive stances were becoming entrenched.The advent of the no-blame civilisation is easeing to erode these stances and attitudes (Aldridge 2000). It is allowing the development of puts which whitethorn help the efficiency of our hospitals and give the patient with a better service.The red height formation arose as a product of both of these factors. The constrict on the AE discussion section cater is often relentless and great. The structure of the establishment is that nigh determinations be interpreted by comparatively in fuckd module member s and often non the near becharm for the decision that needinesss to be taken. Huge numbers of roentgenograms ar seen by junior-grade fixates and decisions regarding treatment are initially made forrader a older specialist has a chance to oversee them. It would follow, by any common sense analysis of the situation, that any measure that could help in the decision making process should be welcomed.This argument is taken march on by the article by Vincent et al. (1988) . In the days forwards the red decimal arrest trunk was seriously considered, Vincent and his colleagues carried out a field of operation of the radiological misconducts made by junior hospital doctors. They set in motion an error array of 35% when the roentgenogram was assessed by the SHO alone. For errors with a clinically hearty impact the calculate was 39% (of abnormal films).The red dispel remains represents a mechanism to try to address this gap. It involves the radiographer usually, that non always, the one who has taken the film giving the clinician some feed back. Radiographers see many thousands of films and are well-nighly actually familiar with the structures that they show. Quite apart from their courtly bringing up, simply by everyday familiarity and experience, they get to know what is normal and what is not. The radiographer is and so hygienic placed to recognise an abnormality evening though they may not fully appreciate the full clinical significance of what is on the film. The same argument can be applied to the clinician, who can generally recognise pathology in a patient yet may not be so familiar with the X-Ray careens.The red break up brass requires the radiographers to examine the film after it has been ordered by the clinician. If they feel that in that location is an abnormality on it they will place a self-adhesive red breaker point on it to denote that they believe that it contains an abnormality. Clearly this does not relieve t he clinician of the responsibility of examining the film as, the legal responsibility for interpreting the film mustiness rest with him. This is solitary(prenominal) reasonable since even the most experienced radiologist would still give a report on what he could see on the film, the full significance of the changes seen can only be fully assessed by a healthcare professional who has also seen and assessed the patient. As we will handle later, the converse argument that the absence of a red dot does not imply that in that respect isnt an abnormality it only denotes that the radiographer hasnt seen one.The red dot governing bodyIn a letter to the BMJ Keith Piper (2003) outlined the case for the red dot placement and the radiographer insurance coverage ashes (See on). It was initially suggested by the size up Commission in 1993 that radiographers could be trained to interpret certain images and this was raise to be of extra interest in view of the difficulties that some d epartments shortly experience with the insurance coverage serviceThe first accredited course was eliminate in 1994 many radiographers deem since been reporting on primary osseous X-Rays in AE departmentsPiper points out that the system is designed to reduce errors in reporting X-Rays. It is ultimately totally reliant on the radiographs being lastly account by a senior radiologist in a timely fashion. Unfortunately, this is not always the case as Beggs pointed out in 1990 when it was raise that over 20% of UK t for each oneing hospitals did not report on all virgule and pinch filmsWith specific reference to the red dot system, the letter by Aldridge and Freeland (2000) passes explanation on the system which is in physical exercise in their hospital and, having audited it, they present their leaves. The system in use conforms to that on-line(prenominal)ly outlined by British Association of Accident and Emergencys inclinelines (1983). The important facets of their system includeThe rapid return of X-Rays to the requesting clinicianReporting of X-Rays by a adviser radiologist within 24 hrs.Telephone recall of patients who surrender mistakes picked upThe use of the red dot system by the radiographersThe use of such X-Rays for teaching purposes for staffAs far as the audit of the red dot system was concerned, they report the last audit showed an 1.5% dishonest domineering(p) result, 2.0% off negative result with the rest categorised as true positive or negative results. The authors felt that this represented an excellent come on to what they described as an error prone activity, reducing mistakes by accident and emergency staff (often junior), increasing patient satisfaction, and reducing long border patient morbidity and litigation. This letter is a significant piece of licence as it is written by two clinicians who are distinctly restless to assess the system and to suck up it work. They appreciate the problems, quantify them and address them by placing safeguards to minimise problems. Significantly, they suggest the use of the red dot system where it has picked up omissions by the clinical staff to be the basis of teaching junior staff in an attempt to further reduce potential problems.These results should be seen in the linguistic context of a study by de Lacey et al.(client to supply date) who considered the truth of adventure policemans interpretation or X-Rays in their departments. They found that by study the chance officers interpretation with that of a radiologist, it only compared favourably in 83% of cases. The 17% discrepancy understandably represents a major burden in terms of clinical implications for the patient, financial implications for the hospital and possibly litigation implications for the chance officer. The study also examines the implications of a decelerate reporting system (by the radiologist). It was found to reduce their workload by 25% by restricting their reporting to those film s which the casualty officer was unsure or thought may stand an abnormality. It clearly follows from this that any measure that is likely to increase efficiency inaccuracy of reporting is likely to stick out benefits of both economy and patient suffering. We therefore need to examine the premise that the red dot system does scarcely that.These figures are clearly worrying insofar as the 17% discrepancy is a wide margin. The figures still subscribe to be viewed in context that as, although they represent the interpretation of as specialist (the radiologist) as compared with that of the non-specialist (the clinician), the authorship does not draw any distinction amid the experience levels of the two groups. The clinicians may be comparatively inexperienced casualty officers and the radiologists probably are adviser grade. If that is the case, indeed the figures are much less alarming. This point is discussed in full stop further on in the piece (Williams et al 2000) where ra diologists in training are compared to radiologists of consultant grade. The point is brought into sharper focus by retainer of the next two papers.Before we consider this aspect however, we need to measure the accuracy of reporting in the AE Department environment. Benger and Lyburn (2003) attempted to investigate exactly that. They scrutinised the X-Ray output of an AE Department over a cardinal month period (nearly 12,000 films). They identified the films which had discrepancies in reporting among the X-Ray staff and the AE Department staff. From the 12,000 films they found (only) 175 discrepancies. In clinical terms, this equated to a rate of 0.3% of patients who needed a change of vigilance as a result. In all our deliberations on the subject, perhaps it is this that actually is the subjective criteria for whether a system works within tolerable limits or not. Different studies may pass divergent discrepancy survey in interpretation of X-Ray films, provided what is of practical value is the actual number of patients who require a change of management as a result. If a minor degree of subluxation of a proximal interphalangeal joint is missed by a casualty officer and subsequently picked up by a radiologist, it will appear on inventories of discrepancies such as the ones discussed above. In terms of patient care or treatment, it will not make a scrap of difference. This point is made, kinda much eloquently and in a different context, by Fineberg (1977) and the add of Medicine (1977).This point should not be taken lightly and indeed, it goes to the lens nucleus of this piece. Academic studies may show different abnormality detection rates between the different professional groups. While recognising that these are clearly important, they are not the yardstick by which we must judge the red dot system. We pitch already examined two papers on the subject that require inform differences in abnormality detection at each end of the spectrum one o f 17% and one of 1.5%. We should not be blinded by these figures themselves. What actually matters is the number of patients who have a change of management decision as a result of this discrepancy. The paper quoted above (Benger and Lyburn 2003) is one of the few which actually gives us this information. They quote an observed change of management in only 0.3% of patients which, for any system, is a very tolerable level of error. This is clearly a very native point and one that we need to examine further. The next paper that we should consider supposes at exactly this point and examines it in great detail.Taking a more academic approach Brealey and Scally (2001) rigging the difficult rationalize of meet how to interpret the findings of a study that purports to evaluate the reading of X-Rays by two or more different professional groups. This is a very technical paper and is included here for the interestingness of completeness. It examines all of the possible margins for error and bias when reporting a runnel. It throws footling direct light onto our deliberations here be set of its very technical nature, but it would be of considerable importance to one who wished to interpret the findings of a major trial independently. The point needs making that the trial design can learn the outcome of the trial (and therefore its usableness) to a great extent. As we have made the point above, the actual figures produced at the end of the trial must be interpreted in the light of the trial design. Actual find differences in readings between two groups of professionals may be of academic interest, but in the context of our test of the red dot system, they are not nearly as important as a critical test of the discrepancies which resulted in a change of patient menagement.On the direct issue of the red dot system, an almost immediate precursor to the system was reported in the BMJ in 1991 by Renwick et al. . He discussed a system that was time-tested out of get ting radiologists to indicate their diagnoses on the pre-reported X-Rays, in order to guide the casualty officers in their decisions. The conclusions of the study were that, because of the high rate of monstrous positive reporting (7%) and higher rate of false negatives (14%) it was appropriate for radiologists to offer useful advice but to take no more responsibility than that. We shall discuss the issues of false positives and false negatives further on in this piece and clearly they are an inherent problem with the system. It follows that we should, perhaps, address the reasons why there are these discrepancies and use them as a learning exercise to try to reduce the gap.In the excellent and concise article written by Touquet et al. (1995) the authors address the x Commandments of AE Department radiology. They discuss the red dot system in the pursuance terms.Inexperienced doctors will inevitably come across injuries that they have never seen before. In these cases it may not be possible to make a diagnosing but you will notice that the films do not look instead justifiedly. Good examples of this are lunate and perilunate dislocations of the hand. It is important to seek senior advice and also to listen to the radiographer. Many departments operate a red dot system, in which the radiographer flags up an abnormality. An experienced radiographer may be as straightforward as or even better than a junior doctor at interpreting films.The problem with this system is that the absence of a red dot does not necessary mean that there is no abnormality. This is important to remember because the final responsibility lies with the doctor, and not the radiographer. Therefore never judge poor quality or inadequate films.The most salient point of this article is in the last paragraph. The absence of a red dot does not mean the absence of an abnormality and the obligation lies with the doctor not the radiographer. This is clearly proper, as any experienced healthcar e professional will state, any investigation (particularly an X-Ray) is only an adjunct to diagnosis, it is the person who is clinically in charge of the patient who has to assimilate all the available evidence to make a diagnosis. The radiographer has not seen the patient to examine, and certainly will not have to hand all of the other potential diagnostic aids that are available in a modern AE Department. It is entirely reasonable to pack for his judgement on an X-Ray film, but it is not reasonable to acquit him responsible for its definitive interpretation when he has not seen it in the context of the patient.This statement is laughingstock the reasoning for the legal responsibility of X-Ray interpretation. It would be clearly inappropriate to ask a radiographer for his opinion on a film and accordingly make him responsible for any subsequent management decisions that were based on that opinion. Some commentators have criticised the red dot system for its clear lack of appor tionment of responsibility to the radiographer. We would suggest that this shows a fundamental lack of appreciation of the problems involved. The radiographers are trained to be experts in fetching X-Ray films. They are not, and do not pre scarper to be, trained in the biological sciences and their applications to pathology and the human disease processes. It is quite appropriate to ask their opinion in an area of their expertise (the interpretation of the X-Ray film), but it is quite inappropriate to ask them to make clinical management decisions. For this reason, all questions of liability always rest on the clinician in charge of the patient, and it is only right that this should be the case.It is fair to say that some of the views surveiled so far have been old school necessarily so, as the intention was to document the development of the red dot system. It is equally fair to state that we have only considered the use of the system in the AE Department. The truth of the matt er is that in the recent past, the status of the radiographer has increased in professionalism both within their own strong point and within the NHS as a whole. Many of the comments made in some of the earlier papers quoted will therefore, now seem rather change and not consistent with the modern experience of working in the NHS.To damages the balance we shall look at an article from Papworth hospital by Sonnex et al (2001) . The authors describe a system currently in use at an acute cardiothoracic unit. Radiographers were asked to assess all the X-Rays taken over a six month trial period. Those that were assessed as showing acute changes had a red dot placed on them to denote an abnormality and these were then assessed by a radiologist. The success or failure rate was then deliberate against this standard.The figures are rather different from the figures quoted in the studies that looked at otiose X-Ray in AE Departments. The reason for this is almost certainly that a chest X- Ray is notoriously hard to interpret, even more so when it is a back operative X-Ray. The results were reported as a total sample of 8614, of which 464 (5%) had red dots applied. Over 100 of these were considered inappropriate. 38 X-Rays which were abnormal were not picked up. It would appear that radiographers tend to err on the side of caution when reviewing an abnormal chest X-Ray, even more so when previous comparative films were not available for comparison. This particular study had a high false positive rate.One should not lose sight of the fact that the radiographers concerned were dealing with a different population to those that we were considering earlier. The patients were generally very ill and often in a post operative state making assessment far more critical than perhaps the colder X-Ray of the AE Department where decisions could more or less be delayed safely for 24-48 hrs. there was therefore perhaps far more pressure on them to report any possible abnormality. I t is also appropriate to comment that this was the first stage of a study which then went on to review the radiographers public presentation after a further period of training. One would reasonably anticipate a higher agreement rate after appropriate training.As we have already seen the red dot system has evolved in several different variants. The basic premise is the same in each case how is it possible to minimise the potential sources of error caused by inexperience? A further variant is outlined by Williams et al (2000). His paper title specifically involves the cost effectiveness of the turning away as well as the overall impact on patient management. In this scheme ( which was running at the Radcliffe Hospital in Oxford) the original AE Department films were reviewed by radiologists-in-training. They identified 684 incorrect diagnoses over a one year period. These were then called red reports and reviewed by a consultant radiologist. During this process 351 missed fractures were detect with ankle, finger and elbow fractures being the main areas where pathology was missed. Williams also reported 11 incidences of pathology on a chest X-Ray as being missed. This amplifies the point made earlier that the radiologists-in-training tended to produce false positives at a rate of about 18% when compared to the subsequent, more expert opinion.In this particular study, further action was taken by the AE Department staff in 42% of those cases although no operative intervention was required in any patient as a result of the missed diagnosis. Despite these figures, it must be noted that these cases form a very small percentage of the X-Rays taken in a busy AE DepartmentFalse positives and false negativesWe have looked at a number of studies that have compared radiographers interpretations of X-Ray films against that of a advisor Radiologist who has generally been used as the Gold Standard. The difference between the two sets of interpretations is then subdivided in to false positives and false negatives. This group is actually the most important as it is firstly an indication of the usefulness of the whole system of red dot reporting and secondly it is also an indication of how much more training any particular reader (radiographer or casualty officer ), of the films has to infrago, in order to make fully competent assessments.The false positive is the situation where the radiographer has identified a problem that is not there. Conversely, the false negative is when they have missed pathology that is there. In most of the assessments that we have seen, there are more false positives than negatives. This implies that the radiographers are being over buttoned-down when confronted with an equivocal film.Several of the papers that we have seen so far have stated (either explicitly or otherwise) that the absence of a red dot does not imply the absence of any pathology. Any common-sense analysis of the situation would suggest that this is clearly self-evident. It must be the case where two exceedingly trained but clearly not expert healthcare professionals are looking at a film for pathology, they are probably more likely to arrive at the right answer than one alone.Brealey (2005) produced a Meta-analysis of studies involving radiographers input in interpreting films and found that radiographers involved either in the red dot system of X-Ray reading improved with experience and with training, acquired an accuracy approaching that of radiologists when dealing with skeletal X-Rays.The red dot system is designed to utilise the expertise of specially trained radiographers to interpret knitwork X-Rays. From the evidence presented above we can say that there is evidence that radiographers are clearly more expert in interpreting unornamented skeletal X-Rays than chest X-Rays or visceral radiographs. The red dot system appears to be a growing movement within the profession. A paper by Brealey (2003) pointed out the fact that be tween 1968 and 1991 the radiologists workload increased by 322% but the number of posts increased by only 213%. As a result of this the number of films successfully reported within 48hrs fell to 60%. As a result of this effort the Royal College of Radiologists decided to endorse the trend of radiographers giving indications of pathology on X-Rays . Brealeys paper examines the initial cohort of radiographers who were trained under this scheme and found that, statistically, there was no significant difference between the reading of an X-Ray by a radiographer or a radiologist (in the case of plain skeletal X-Rays) which supports the view that the red dot system is viable.Any examination of this issue would be incomplete without a consideration of the detailed and analytical paper by Friedenberg (2000) which he provocatively empower The advent of the super applied scientist. It is particularly relevant to our consideration of the red dot system and the role of the radiographer as it looks at the background to the whole issue. Friedenberg uses the term readiness mix as a specific term to define the current trend in medicine away from specialisation and departmentalisation and towards the communal function of expertise from different individuals in related fields to complement or increase the expertise available to patients. He points out that this is not actually a new concept and cites the optician who relieves the workload of the ophthalmologist and the fellate specialist anaesthetist who relieves the anaesthesiologist by performing uncomplicated procedures. He quotes a whole host of paramedical providers who now assist the physician, in most cases without problemsLoughran et al (1996a, 1996b, 1992) have specifically looked at the practicality of utilising the skills of the radiographer to better advantage than just taking the films.He contrasts the difference in practice between the UK and the USA, citing the cause of the complete separation of the roles o f radiographer and radiologist in the USA as being due to the fact that in the USA, the radiologists still operate largely on a fee-per-service basis whereas in the UK the pressure is primarily on clinicians to fabricate more efficient and to keep costs down.Friedenberg, interestingly also examines the developing of the legality of the roles of radiographer and radiologist.Between 1900 and 1920, there was competition between radiographers and radiologists with regard to the performance of radiography and the interpretation of radiographs. In the middle 1920s in England, radiographers were prohibited from accepting patients for radiography except under the direction of a measure up medical practitioner (Quotes Larkin 1983)After this the professions came closer and by 1971 Swinburne (1971) was suggesting that radiographers could perfectly well separate normal from abnormal films, which after all is the basis behind the red dot system . As we have discussed earlier, this move then progressed into the first formal appearance of the red dot system in North Park Hospital in 1985. The first trials of the system found that approximately half of the abnormalities that were not picked up by the junior casualty officers were detected by the radiographers. The early safe guards were outlined by Loughran (1996) as follows1. It is made clear to the referring physician that the report is a locomotive engineers report. The physician is further to consult the radiologist if there is a lack of clinical correlation.2. The technologist must consult the radiologist if he or she is in doubt.3. The physicians, radiologists, and technologists have devised a set of guidelines to create a safe environment for this practice.4. Initially, the technologists practice is monitored on a regular basis. After the technologist is experienced, however, monitoring is no longer performed. Such monitoring should be performed if a new technologist enters this practice.Interestingly, Loughran a lso subsequently produced a set of guidelines for the radiographer 1. The technologist should be positive(p) in his or her report.2. In cases of doubt, a radiologists opinion should be obtained.3. In such cases, although the report may be issued by the reporting technologist, the consultants take a shit should be appended to the report.4. All reports by a technologist should be clearly designated as a technologists report.5. If the patient re-presents for radiography of the same body part within 2 months, this should be reported by a radiologist.6. Non-trauma examination findings should be reported by the radiologist.7. All accident department images in patients who are subsequently admitted as inpatients should be reported by the radiologist.8. Clinicians are to be advised to consult the radiologist if clinical findings do not match those in the technologists report.9. Regular combined reporting sessions are to be held with the consultant radiologist.Robinson (1999) Defines the i deal areas for radiographers and radiologists with the following definition between cognitive and adjective tasks thusProcedural tasks can be described, defined, taught, and subjected to performance standards that make them transferrable to other staff with appropriate training. Cognitive tasks that are related not only to the interpretation of images but also to decisions about differential diagnosis and appropriate choice of further investigations are more difficult.We have examined the maturation of the red dot system and there have been moves towards the logical improvement beyond the radiographer simply indicating that there may be a problem to the situation where radiographer who have undertaken further training have developed their skills in other ways as well, but this is beyond the scope of this piece. maybe we should leave the last thought to Friedenberg who envisages the future as being the era of the Supertechnologist and it is the specialist who is left to do a smal l number of very highly specialised procedures.References1. Jonathan Aldridge, Peter Freeland, (2000) Safety of systems can often be improved BMJ 2000321505 ( 19 princely )2. The Audit Commission (1995). Improving Your form How to manage Radiology Services More Effectively. 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